1. The Uprising

• The British East India Company faced its first determined form of revolt at this time.
• It started out as a rebellion among the sepoys who served in the army of the British East India Company, but it gradually gained the support of the general populace.
• This uprising has been variously referred as The First War of Independence (By Vinayak Damodar Savarkar), The Sepoy Mutiny (by British historians), The Indian Mutiny, The Great Rebellion (by Bharatiya historians), The Revolt of 1857, and The Indian Insurrection.

2. Factors that led to the 1857 Uprising

The uprising of 1857 caused serious cracks in the structure of British power in Bharat. The 1857 uprising is a watershed moment in the history of Bharat. There were several causes for the uprising. There are a wide range of immediate and remote, universal and specific, fortuitous and required factors that contribute to every action. The following are some of the causes of the uprising:

• Social Factors
• Religious Factors
• Political Factors
• Economic/Financial Factors V. Military/Army Factors VI. Specific Factor

Social Factors

• Disruption of Accepted Social Practices
• Racism

Disruption of Accepted Social Practices: The Brits tried many different approaches to fix the problems that had developed in Bharatiya culture. In 1829, the Widow Remarriage Act was enacted and the practise of sati was outlawed. The Bharatiyas were not fond of the British meddling in their culture.

Racism: The Brits saw themselves as part of a higher race and enjoyed making fun of the Bharatiyas. As a result, they had a negative societal view of them. The British routinely treated Bharatiyas with contempt in public, objectified Bharatiya women, and physically assaulted Bharatiyas, sometimes to the point of death. The Bharatiyas seldom succeeded in having British courts hold the perpetrators of these crimes accountable. As the British expanded their political influence in Bharat, so did their racial superiority complex. The Bharatiyas were undoubtedly enraged by this.

Religious Factors

• British Laws against Bharatiya Traditions
• Actions of the Missionaries
• Charging Taxes to places of worship

British Laws Against Bharatiya Traditions: A new rule was enacted in 1850 that allowed a Christianized Native to inherit his family's land. Many Indians saw this as the Brits trying to convert them to Christianity through deceit. William Bentinck prohibited the practice of Sati in 1829. It was supported by liberal Hindus as well. Yet, the people in general doubted the intentions of the government. In 1832 and 1850, laws were passed concerning succession of property. The Religious Disabilities Act of 1856 also decided that none would be deprived of his hereditary property on the ground of changing his religion. The people felt that these were meant to encourage conversions to Christianity. In 1856, Widow Remarriage Act was passed by Lord Canning and the Hindus felt that the government was interfering in their social and religious affairs.

Actions of the Missionaries: Christian missionaries had a free hand from the East India Company to try to win over the locals to their faith. These missionaries actively shared the gospel in venues including classrooms, clinics, jails, and markets. They publicly criticised and showed intolerance for the Hindu and Islamic faiths. Concern about the future of their faiths grew as the influence of English schooling and customs extended over the subcontinent via missionaries and convents. Muslim leaders, Maulvis, and Pandits were prominent religious leaders who preached anti-British sentiment. Many contemporary writers gave vent to this fear of the people. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan wrote: “All persons, whether intelligent or ignorant, respectable or otherwise, believed that the government was really and sincerely desirous of interfering with the religion and custom of the people, converting them all, whether Hindus or Mohammedans, to Christianity, and forcing them to adopt European manners and habits.”

Charging Taxes to places of worship: The temple lands were taxed by the Brits. Families who relied on these land areas started circulating the word that the Brits were plotting to suppress religion in Bharat.

Political Factors

• Subsidiary Alliance
• Doctrine of Lapse
• Annexation of Awadh
• Ways Nana Saheb and Rani Laxmibai Were Treated
• Disregard for Bahadur Shah Zafar

Subsidiary Alliance: As a result of their victory at Plassey, the British immediately expanded their control over Bharatiya territory. They waged battles, coerced empires into signing the Subsidiary Alliance System, and claimed that Bharatiya rulers were mismanaging their nations as an excuse to seize control of Bharatiya territory. By 1856, most Bharatiya empires had fallen under British control, and their kings had become nothing more than puppets. Because of this, tension arose between the rulers and their citizens. The Subsidiary Alliance was instrumental in bringing the Bharatiya states Awadh and Hyderabad under the British rule.

Doctrine of Lapse: When Lord Dalhousie initiated the Doctrine of Lapse, the British automatically gained control about any Bharatiya territory whose king did not leave a male heir. Many Bharatiya states, including Jhansi, Satara, and Nagpur, were illegally occupied by the British East India Company on the basis of the Doctrine of Lapse. Therefore, monarchs such as Rani Laxmibai rose up in rebellion against the British.

Annexation of Awadh: Awadh was taken by Lord Dalhousie on the pretence of inefficiency. Given that the Brits appear to have disregarded agreements made to British leaders, this choice appears to have been taken arbitrarily. The Bharatiya government and populace were both distressed by this.

Ways Nana Saheb and Rani Laxmibai Were Treated: The Brits declined to provide a pension to Nana Saheb, the adopted son of Shrimant Peshwa Baji Rao II, the last Peshwa. The Marathas were outraged by this. Once the British took the kingdom of Jhansi based on the Doctrine of Lapse, Rani Laxmibai became a devoted opponent of the British.

Disregard for Bahadur Shah Zafar: There was this issue the Muslims had with the Brits. British officials would often treat Mogul Emperor Bahadur Shah with contempt. After Bahadur Shah's death, the British planned to take over his palace and fort, and Lord Canning said the title of Mogul emperor would be abolished. The Muslims of India have traditionally felt responsible for protecting the Mogul emperor's reputation. That's why they started to really hate the Brits.

Economic/Financial Factors

• Economic Leakage
• The Misuse of the Economy's Resources
• Taking Advantage of the Bharatiya Commoners
• The Decline of Small-Scale and Craft-Based Markets
• Destitution and Starvation
• Deterioration of the Landed Gentry

Economic Leakage: After consolidating their control over Bengal, the British started using Indian tax money to import raw resources destined for export to Britain. Raw resources like cotton and silk were in high demand in British factories, thus Bharat was compelled to sell them at reduced prices. Plantation goods and food grains, both of which were in low quantity in Britain, were among Bharat's exports. British officer pays and pensions were also paid for by Bharatiya tax money. This started the process through which riches of Bharat were transferred to the British Empire.

The Misuse of the Economy’s Resources: Bharatiya peasants were subjected to excessive taxation at the hands of the British. For instance, the British government was able to significantly increase its share of Bengal's land earnings. Due to the increasing land earnings, many peasants were forced to sell their properties since they were unable to meet the financial demands of the situation. The merchants and loan sharks who bought the property after it had been abandoned did little to enhance its condition since their primary focus was on maximising the amount of money, they could extract from it in rent and other fees. As a direct consequence of this, the situation of the Bharatiya peasants became worse.

Taking Advantage of the Bharatiya Commoners: The Brits took use of the country's riches to an excessive degree. Bharat was compelled to sell raw commodities to Britain at prices that were much below market value. Commodities from the plantations as well as food grains were sent to Britain. While there were no import tariffs placed on ready-made British items, there were significant import taxes placed on Bharatiya goods that were sent to Britain. The effect of this was a decrease in handicraft industry of Bharat as well as many other locally incorporated businesses.

The Decline of Small-Scale and Craft-Based Markets: The free trade policy instituted by the English led to a collapse in the Bharatiya handicraft sector. There was no way for Bharatiya products to cope well with low prices of English machine-made/ready-made items. Also, the British government slapped heavy trade taxes on Bharatiya imports. Because of this, millions of weavers and craftspeople lost their means of subsistence.

Destitution and Starvation: The common Bharatiya people were made poor by British economic policy. Repeated famines plagued Bharat, and the British did little to nothing to alleviate the suffering.

Deterioration of the Landed Gentry: The original landowners and other members of the wealthy gentry, such as the taluqdars, were dispossessed of their properties. Over 20,000 properties were seized and sold to whomever placed the best offer in accordance with the terms of the Inam Board, which was established in 1852 and put into law. Landed nobility in Awadh was denied the privileges that came with their ownership of land.

Military/Army Factors

• General Service Enlistment Act
• Mistreatment of Bharatiya Troopers
• Greater Number of Bharatiya Troopers Serving in the British Army
• Absence of Financial Support
  

General Service Enlistment Act: In 1856, the British instituted a new act that mandated foreign deployment of all sepoys at the whim of the British orders. Bhartiya people had this view that one might lose his/her religion if he/she travels across oceans or to foreign lands. The sepoys were concerned that the British were making an effort to disparage their faith.

Mistreatment of Bharatiya Trooper: Bharatiya troops serving under the British were mistreated. Better working conditions and compensation were withheld from them. The English officers degraded them as well. In the Bharatiya armed forces, no one served a higher rank than "subedar." The Brits didn't care about how Indians felt.

Greater Number of Bharatiya Troopers Serving in the British Army: Many Bharatiya troops were part of the British army. It facilitated the participation of Indian troops in the fight against the British. Almost 75,000 people from "Awadh" served in the British armed forces. These troops were furious when Nawab Wajid Ali's mismanagement of Awadh led to its annexation to the British Empire.

Absence of Financial Support: The sepoys' entitlement to free mail was terminated by the Post Office Act of 1854. Moreover, the sepoys were expected to perform duties in places far from their families without receiving any additional compensation/gratuity. Bharatiya troops were not paid enough to provide for their families, while the British troops were paid more. Bharatiya troops were outraged by this.

Specific Factor

A brand-new rifle known as the "Enfield Rifle" was issued to British soldiers. This firearm required a cartridge that included a greased paper cover on its outside. Before the ammunition could be loaded into the rifle, this paper cover had to be chewed off first. It was widely believed that the greased paper had both beef and pork in its composition. The troops were under the impression that this was an attempt by the Brits to smear their faith. Mangal Pandey pleaded with his fellow service members to refrain from using this gun. On March 29th, 1857, he launched an assault on his soldiers at Barrackpore. Afterwards, he was executed by hanging. On the 9th of May, 1857, 85 Bharatiya troops who had declined to use the greased ammunition were fired from their duties and sent to prison for defying their superiors. This was the consequence for disregarding their orders. This event is seen as the commencement of the Sepoy Revolt in Meerut, which would eventually expand to the other regions of northern Bharat.

3. Hotspots of the Uprising

From the outskirts of Patna to the state line with Rajasthan, the uprising swept the whole region. The primary cities of insurrection in these areas included Lucknow, Kanpur, Bareilly, Jhansi, Gwalior and Arrah in Bihar.

i. Lucknow: It served as the administrative centre of Awadh. Begum Hazrat Mahal, who was one of the begums of the former king of Awadh, gripped the role of the leader of the uprising. When the British took back the area, Begum Hazrat mahal sought shelter in Nepal.

ii. Kanpur: The uprising in Kanpur was commanded by Peshwa Baji Rao II's adoptive son Nana Saheb. The loss of his pension at the hands of the British was a major motivation for him to join the rebellion. The triumph was brief and fleeting. After receiving reinforcements, the Brits were able to retake Kanpur. The uprising was put down with brutal force. But, his outstanding commander Tantia Tope kept fighting even after Nana Saheb fled. Tantia Tope was captured and executed after being found guilty.

iii. Jhansi: Rani Laxmibai of Jhansi laid the groundwork for the rebellion that led to her state being illegally occupied by Lord Dalhousie under the Doctrine of Lapse. She rebelled against the Brits and helped lead the uprising. The Brits had lost control of most of Jhansi by June 1857. During the siege of the Jhansi fort by English soldiers led by Hugh Rose, Laxmibai fought bravely on the other side. Once it was clear she would be unable to maintain control of the fort, she made a hasty getaway to Kalpi. Tantia Tope, the commander of Nana Sahib's forces, met her at Kalpi and became yet another phenomenal Bharatiya leader. To Gwalior they jointly marched. The overwhelming number of British soldiers eventually proved too much for Rani Laxmibai, and she was slain in battle. Tantia Tope got away, but later the Brits found him and murdered him.

iv. Arrah: Arrah, Bihar was also the centre of the uprising of 1857 revolt, which was headed by Kunwar Singh. He established the viability of Bhartiya warfare for the first time since Shivaji. Despite his advanced years, he battled valiantly and kept the British guessing for almost a year. Major William Taylor ultimately beat him, and he was killed in action on April 26, 1858 in Jagdishpur, Bihar.

4. Uprising and the Repression

The uprising and war of 1857 spanned over a year. By the middle of 1858, it had been put down. Lord Canning announced armistice on July 8, 1858, fourteen months after the uprising at Meerut.

5. Aftereffects of the Uprising

The British mercilessly repressed the 1857 rebellion. The rebellion had far-reaching consequences for Bharat's political and social existence. They were as follows:

1. Putting an end to the dominance of the British East India Company
2. Announcements by Queen Victoria
3. Abolition of the Mughal and Peshwa dynasties
4. Relationships with the State Rulers
5. Strategy of Isolation and Govern
6. Discrimination Based on Race
7. Military Reorganization viii. Development in Patriotism Putting an end to the dominance of the British East India Company

The Company's authority over Bharat was terminated, and the British government assumed full control. There is now a Secretary of State for Bharat, replacing the former Board of Directors and Board of Control. He was tasked with directing British policymaking in Bharat. The money for his salary and benefits was set aside in the Bharatiya budget. In Bharat, the position of Governor General came to be officially listed as Viceroy. Announcements by Queen Victoria

What follows is what was guaranteed in Queen Victoria's Manifesto:

• To adopt a stance of non-interference in Bharatiya civil and religious affairs.
• To be fair to both Europeans and Bharatiyas.
• Bharatiya rulers/leaders who took part in the insurrection would be forgiven, with the exception of those who committed murder against British subjects.
• To aid in the development of Bharat's industrial sector.

Abolition of the Mughal and Peshwa dynasties

The uprising led to the execution of Bahadur Shah Zafar's children and grandchild. With Bahadur Shah Zafar's death, the Moguls in Bharat collapsed. The Peshwa-ship ended when Nana Sahib escaped to Nepal after the uprising. During the uprising, the Brits were capable of killing off two of their most deadly foes.

Relationships with the State Rulers

Both the Subsidiary Alliance System and the Theory of Lapse were scrapped by the Brits. Bharatiya rulers were honoured for their allegiance to Brits during the uprising.

Strategy of Isolation and Govern

The insurrection included both Hindus and Muslims, thus the British implemented their tactic of divisive politics. These caused divisions not between Hindus and Muslims. Discrimination Based on Race

The British were cruel and degrading to Bharatiya people. The stereotype of Bharatiyas as untrustworthy remained in place. The British were given preferential treatment in all public spaces, including trains, parklands, guesthouses, and clubhouses.

Military Reorganization

European forces in Bharat were bolstered to a greater extent. Forces from Europe were stationed at vital command centres. The Brits took command of the weaponry. To avoid future anti-British insurrection, the army systematically discriminated against candidates based on their caste, location, and religion throughout the recruiting process. To avert a revolt, the troops were barred from receiving local papers, journals, and patriotic literature.

Development in Patriotism

The British brutality during the 1857 rebellion and the subsequent growth of the Bharatiya Independence Motion. Millions of Bharatiyas felt motivated to oppose British control because to the brave efforts of Bharatiya leaders like Rani Laxmibai, Nana Saheb, and Tantia Tope.

6. Constraints of the 1857 Uprising

There wasn't a wide-scale uprising in the natural world. None of Bharat's western, eastern, or southern regions were touched by the uprising. The uprising was quickly put down with the help of soldiers from Rajputana, Punjab, and Sind by the English. The insurgents in Bharat did not have access to sophisticated weaponry. They were disorganised and unprepared. In contrast, the English troops had access to cutting-edge hardware. The revolt was not supported by many of the ruling elite. The revolt had no effect on the Sindhias of Gwalior, the Nizam of Hyderabad, the Holkars of Indore, or the rulers of Patiala. The 1857 uprising was opposed by many zamindars and moneylenders. Because of their belief that Bharat could only be remodelled under British rule, many educated Bharatiyas did not back the uprising.

7. Essence of the 1857 Uprising

• When people rise up in opposition to the government, it is called a revolt. The 1857 uprising has been the subject of several books and articles by historians.
• Most British historians, including P. E. Roberts, have concluded that the Bharatiya sepoys fought this uprising primarily as a military revolution. Numerous Bharatiya historians, however, argue that the uprising originated as a successful revolution against the grossly unfair and self-centered laws of the British rulers.
• Veer Savarkar called the uprising of 1857 the "First War of Indian Independence." He claims that many people other than Bharatiya sepoys—including commoners, zamindars, and rulers—took part in the uprising.
• There was more to the uprising than just an uprising among Bharatiya soldiers. As of late, it was widespread throughout much of northern and central Bharat. Some have called this uprising the "First War of Indian Independence," but it's important to remember that it didn't involve most of western, eastern, or southern Bharat. Moreover, until recently, Bharatiyas were not moved by ideas of patriotism or freedom. When the Brits put down the insurrection, they were aided by several Punjabi warriors. This insurrection against the British government's oppressive laws in Bharat is better described as a Bharatiya uprising.

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