Introduction

The caste system, a deeply entrenched social hierarchy in India, has shaped the country’s socio-political landscape for centuries. A caste census, which involves enumerating the population by caste, has emerged as a contentious yet pivotal tool for addressing social inequalities and informing policy. The decision to include caste enumeration in India’s upcoming national census, announced in April 2025, marks a significant shift after decades of debate. This article explores the historical context, political dynamics, reform efforts, and contemporary debates surrounding the caste census, with a focus on its polarization in Indian politics and media.

Historical Context of Caste Enumeration

Colonial Era and Early Censuses

Caste enumeration in India began under British colonial rule, with the first comprehensive caste census conducted in 1871. The British institutionalized caste as a prism to understand and govern India, categorizing communities into hierarchical groups for administrative purposes. By 1931, the last colonial census to fully enumerate castes, detailed data on hundreds of castes and sub-castes was collected. This data was used to allocate resources, define political representation, and reinforce social divisions, often benefiting upper castes who maintained influence over colonial institutions.

Post-independence, India discontinued full caste enumeration in 1941, limiting data collection to Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs) for affirmative action policies. The decision reflected a desire to move away from colonial practices and promote a unified national identity. However, it also obscured the demographic realities of Other Backward Classes (OBCs) and other caste groups, perpetuating inequalities.

The Socio-Economic and Caste Census (SECC) of 2011

The demand for a caste census resurfaced in the late 20th century, culminating in the Socio-Economic and Caste Census (SECC) of 2011 under the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) government. The SECC aimed to collect comprehensive caste data alongside socio-economic indicators. However, the caste data was never published, citing concerns over accuracy and political misuse. This lack of transparency fueled debates over representation and resource allocation, with opposition parties accusing the government of suppressing critical information.

Political Dynamics and the Caste Census

The Mandal Commission and Caste-Based Politics

The 1990 implementation of the Mandal Commission’s recommendations, which expanded reservations for OBCs in government jobs and education, marked a turning point in Indian politics. It transformed caste into a potent political capital, leading to the rise of caste-based parties like the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) and Rashtriya Janata Dal (RJD). Political parties began leveraging caste identities to mobilize voters, creating vote banks and fueling patronage politics.

The caste census debate intensified as parties recognized its potential to reshape electoral strategies. Opposition leaders, particularly from OBC and Dalit communities, argued that accurate caste data was essential for equitable policy-making. Conversely, some upper-caste groups and factions within the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) initially resisted, fearing it would undermine their political dominance or fuel divisive identity politics.

The BJP’s Shifting Stance

Historically, the BJP, rooted in Hindutva ideology, prioritized Hindu unity over caste divisions to consolidate its voter base. In 2021, Union Minister Nityanand Rai stated that the government had no plans to enumerate castes beyond SCs and STs. However, the announcement in April 2025 to include caste in the upcoming census, led by the BJP-led NDA government, reflects a strategic pivot. This shift is attributed to electoral setbacks in states like Uttar Pradesh in 2024, where the BJP lost ground, and pressure from allies like Nitish Kumar in Bihar, who conducted a state-level caste survey in 2023.

The move is seen as an attempt to appeal to OBC voters, who constitute over 50% of Uttar Pradesh’s electorate, and counter opposition narratives on social justice, particularly from Congress leader Rahul Gandhi. Critics argue it undercuts the BJP’s earlier resistance and signals a tactical shift to regain electoral ground in key states ahead of elections in Bihar (2025) and Uttar Pradesh (2027).

Opposition’s Advocacy

The opposition, particularly the Congress and INDIA coalition, has consistently championed a caste census. Rahul Gandhi has framed it as a tool to reveal wealth concentration and address caste-based injustices, pledging its implementation if Congress gains power. Leaders like Lalu Prasad Yadav of the RJD have warned that the BJP might undermine affirmative action, resonating with lower-caste voters. The opposition’s united front on this issue contributed to its success in the 2024 general elections, denting the BJP’s dominance.

Reformations and Policy Implications

State-Level Initiatives

Recent state-level caste surveys in Bihar, Karnataka, and Telangana have demonstrated the feasibility and necessity of caste enumeration. Bihar’s 2023 survey revealed that backward and extremely backward castes form over 63% of the population, prompting an increase in reservation quotas. Karnataka’s survey showed that dominant castes like Lingayats and Vokkaligas constitute less than 22% combined, challenging assumptions about their demographic weight. These surveys have exposed mismatches between political representation and actual demographics, fueling demands for a national census under the Census Act of 1948.

Potential Policy Impacts

A national caste census could redefine India’s reservation architecture. Accurate data may lead to demands for expanding the 50% cap on caste-based quotas, necessitating constitutional amendments. It could also inform targeted interventions in education, healthcare, and employment, addressing gaps in social welfare. However, challenges include logistical complexities, data privacy concerns, and cultural sensitivities around caste identity. There is also the risk of increased polarization, as caste groups vie for political and economic benefits.

Contemporary Debates and Polarization

Political Polarization

The caste census has deepened political divides. The BJP’s decision is seen by some as a pragmatic move to co-opt the opposition’s agenda, while others view it as a betrayal of its Hindutva project, which seeks to unify Hindus beyond caste lines. Opposition parties, meanwhile, accuse the BJP of using the census for electoral gains rather than genuine social justice. Debates over sub-categorizing SCs and STs, defining a “creamy layer,” and breaching reservation caps are intensifying, potentially fracturing traditional vote banks.

Social media, particularly X, reflects this polarization. Posts with hashtags like #CasteCensus2025 reveal polarized sentiments: some praise the census as a step toward equity, while others warn it will deepen caste divisions. For instance, activist Yogendra Yadav emphasized its overdue necessity, while others question its political motives.

Media Polarization

Indian media’s coverage of the caste census is equally polarized. Outlets aligned with the BJP, such as certain Hindi news channels, frame the census as a bold move for social justice, downplaying the party’s earlier resistance. Conversely, English-language and opposition-leaning media, like The Indian Express and The Hindu, highlight the BJP’s strategic shift and potential risks of polarization. Social media campaigns amplify these narratives, with the BJP accused of using divisive rhetoric to target specific caste groups, while the Congress counters with fear-based messaging. A 2018 report by the Oxford Internet Institute noted a 500% increase in divisive rhetoric by politicians, underscoring social media’s role in deepening fault lines.

The media also debates the census’s implications for secularism versus Hindutva. The Hindu argues that a caste census could challenge Hindutva’s push for Hindu unity by emphasizing caste identities, while right-wing outlets suggest it could align with welfare goals if framed correctly. This polarization risks overshadowing the census’s potential as a tool for equity.

Challenges and Philosophical Questions

Logistical and Ethical Challenges

Conducting a caste census is fraught with challenges: diverse caste classifications across states, potential resistance from upper castes, and concerns over data misuse. Ensuring accuracy and confidentiality is critical, as is amending the Census Act to include caste as a parameter. Without legal backing, the census risks being another incomplete exercise like the SECC.

Philosophical Considerations

The caste census raises deeper questions about India’s social vision. Should it aim to dismantle caste entirely, as Rahul Gandhi suggests, or use caste data to address inequalities within the existing framework? Is it a tool for justice or a means to perpetuate caste identities? As one commentator noted, “Counting must lead to caring,” emphasizing that the census’s success depends on its ability to drive meaningful change, not just political expediency.

Conclusion

The caste census is a defining moment for India’s democracy, with the potential to reshape its social and political landscape. Its history reflects a struggle between colonial legacies and post-independence aspirations, while its politics reveal the complexities of caste-based mobilization. Contemporary debates, marked by political and media polarization, underscore the census’s divisive yet transformative potential. As India navigates this exercise, it must balance empirical rigor with a commitment to equity, ensuring that the census becomes a foundation for justice rather than a tool for division. The road ahead is challenging, but the stakes—democratic accountability, social inclusion, and national unity—are profound.

.    .    .