This article was born out of a pressing need to understand the Indigenous Limbu people's fervent struggle to safeguard Mukkumlung. What drives their determination, and what is the profound significance of Mukkumlung to their community?
Mukkumlung holds a revered place in the hearts of the Limbu ethnic community, transcending geographical boundaries to resonate deeply with Limbus worldwide, Nepal, India, and beyond. But what is the source of this profound significance?
To unravel this mystery, we must immerse ourselves in the Limbu belief system, rooted in Yuma Samyo aka Yumanism and the ancient wisdom of their Oral Lyrical Poetic Scriptures, the Mundhum, which reveal their Origin, Ancestral Land, Life, Afterlife, and timeless connection to Mukkumlung.
The Limbu people adhere to one of the world's oldest surviving matriarchal (Feminine Divine) religions. Their faith is centered around the cosmic consciousness called 'Tagera Ningwaphuma', who is the universe, herself. Her earthy manifestation is called 'Yuma Sam' or the Great Grandmother Goddess and her male counterpart as 'Thoba Sam' or the Great Grandfather God. However, only Yuma Sam is revered in prayer; hence, this unique tradition is known as Yuma Samyo or Yumanism, blending elements of animism, shamanism, and a profound reverence for the universe, earth, and nature.
In the Limbu Mundhum, the revered Axis Mundi is Mount Phoktanglungma, meaning 'mountain with shoulders'. Later, the mountain was referred to by other names, including Mount Khumbakarna, K2, and Mount Jannu. According to the Limbu creation myth, the genesis of the world unfolded at the summit of Mount Phoktanglungma, specifically called Mangjiri Manglodhana, a sacred site where gods and goddesses appear.
Yuma Sam as the earthly personification or manifestation of Tagera Ningwaphuma called Kango Hangma appeared first at Mangjiri Manglodhana for the benefit of the earthly beings. Then she travelled towards Singyuk (Shang Shung), Muden (Bod Tibet), and Lhasa Tembhe (Plateau of Tibet) towards the big lake Tangwara Pengwaphang (Lake Manasarovar) surrounded by the hills -Wailasho Phullaso then to confluence of rivers (Bhagirathi river and Alaknanda river presently located in the Indian state of Uttarakhand- these rivers are joined by Dhauliglanga river, Nandakini river, Pindar river and Mandakini river to form the Ganges River) where she takes bath and from there to Yetchiri Yet Ado (confluence of Sapta Kaushaki (seven rivers) namely Arun, Dudhkoshi, Tamrakoshi, Likhu, Tambor, Sunkoshi and Milanchirivers, etc., and finally came back to Yashok in Limbuwan.
Now, we come to Mukkumlung. It is believed that on her journey, Yuma Sam as Kango Hangma, is said to have rested at the peak of Mukkumlung, which stands facing Mount Phoktanglungma. What does Mukkumlung mean? It translates to a stone of sacred power. As per the Animistic Belief of the Limbu, every stone, every tree, every plant, and every living organism possesses a spirit.
This narrative describes the habitat boundaries of hunter-gatherer ancestors of the Limbu before they finally settled down in their place of creation at the base of Phoktanglungma in the fertile lands nourished by the Tambor/Tamar River and Arun River. All the Mundhum narratives concentrate and revolve in and around Phoktanglungma and Limbuwan.
The existence of a vibrant and thriving Mukkumlung and Phoktanglungma are very important for Limbu during their Life and Afterlife. Every religious ritual for the living and the dead comprises of a metaphorical soul journey tracing the steps of their ancestors across their Ancestral Lands.
The Peli-Phangsam (Ongshi, Phedangma, Samba, Yeba and Yemani, etc) or the Limbu Shamans are the guardians of the Mundhum, who are also the mediums bridging the spirit world and the earthly realm. They perform astral soul journey, ascending and descending to the higher realms, through these Ancestral Lands guiding the spirits and souls of both the living and the deceased.
Mukkumlung holds a sacred place in the Limbu astral soul journeys, serving as one of the revered Ancestral Lands. This intricate journey, often spanning over a night, is a vital ritual. Here is a simplified version: During these astral soul journeys, the soul is guided from the tongsong/alter/mangden inside the house and to the main pillar of the house called Murum Sitlang (just like Mount Phoktanglungma is the Axis Mundi or the central point of the earth, Murum Sitlang is the Axis Mundi of the house). From there, it moves to the fireplace (Sumjiri Sumhatlung), and upwards through the bamboo baskets above the hearth, traversing the beams to the roof's edge.
It is pertinent to mention here that throughout the astral soul journey, Shamans enlist the guidance of spirit animals. For instance, the spirit of a hawk or buzzard is invoked to facilitate flight from the roof's edge. Upon landing in a marshy terrain (watep-tepwa), earthworm spirits aid in crossing. The journey then proceeds through the Ancestral Lands, entering a dense mountain forest. As the ascent continues, the vegetation transforms with increasing altitude, mirroring the changing landscapes of the natural world.
The description is long, but here is a brief version: As they journey along the winding path, the surroundings transform, with dense foliage and darkness giving way to sun-drenched clearings. The terrain shifts, becoming slippery with sleet or warm with golden light. Along the way, they encounter an array of wildlife, from creatures of the forest to birds taking flight. As they ascend to higher elevations, the landscape unfolds with breathtaking beauty: white Magnolia blooms (Kokphekla), vibrant Thokphekla or Rhododendron flowers, and an atmosphere shrouded in mist, cloud, and wind.
For adherents of Yuma Samyo, this soul journey up Mukkumlung marks a pivotal passage into the Spiritual World. The path unfolds with symbolic milestones, including Sodhung Warak, the Lake of Life. Here, souls collect water from diverse sources, filling and revitalising the lake, ensuring its vitality.
Another crucial ritual, Phungwa Changma/Phung Semma, involves nurturing (growing, watering, weeding) flowers, with special emphasis on Sekmuri Phung, the Celery flower, revered as the Flower of Human Life. The journey also presents three paths and eight paths, each imbued with distinct significance.
The souls of the dearly departed loved ones (natural death) are guided through the pathway to the Ancestral Realm. The Shamans invoke their ancestral spirits, respectfully inquiring which ancestor – whether Great Grandfather, Grandmother, or other revered family members who crossed beforehand to the Sacred World– will receive the departed soul, guiding it to the realm of the Ancestors.
The crossing over from the Profane World to the Sacred World is done by crossing a river from Mukkumlung to Mount Phoktanglungma by building a metaphorical bridge. This river and bridge seperates the Profane World from the Sacred World. The river so spoken is River Tamor/Tamar. After handing over the departed souls to their ancestors, on their astral soul journey back to the living world, the Shamans have to destroy the bridge and block the path.
This condensed account (detailed version will constitute volumes) of the rituals provides a glimpse into the profound significance of Mukkumlung, Mount Phoktanglungma, and River Tamor for the Indigenous Limbu people.
Mukkumlung in Limbuwan is today popularly known by its hinduize name as Pathivara in Taplejung District of Nepal. It is currently at the center of a controversy surrounding a proposed cable car project. Mukkumlung is considered sacred not only by the Indigenous Limbu, but by all the Indigenous Communities of not only Nepal, but the Indian states of Sikkim and West Bengal as well irrespective of their religious affiliation, owing to its miraculous boon bestowing power.
Thus, Mukkumlung holds significant cultural, spiritual, and religious importance for various communities, not only the Limbu people.
Furthermore, Mukkumlung is revered for its environmental richness featuring diverse flora and fauna, sacred to the Limbu people. This natural beauty, unique cultural practices, and spiritual energy attracts pilgrims, tourists, and researchers from around the world. However, the overnight destruction of hundreds of trees and habitats for the cable car project was unbearable for the Animistic Limbu community that they took to the streets. Their protests against the Nepalese government-approved project escalated into clashes, tragically resulting in the shooting of three youths by authorities.
The resistance of the Indigenous groups and local communities, who fear it will disrupt the site's cultural and spiritual significance, has sparked a wider debate about the balance between the development and preservation of cultural heritage sites in Nepal.
Mount Phoktanglungma and Mukkumlung hold a sacred and vital significance for the Indigenous Limbu, comparable to the reverence accorded to Mount Sinai and Mount Hermon in Abrahamic traditions, Kedarnath Badrinath, and the Ganga in Sanatan Hinduism, and Lhasa, Boudhanath, and Bodhgaya in Buddhism.
This is the very reason as to why the construction of the cable car and destruction of Mukkumlung's greenery is being perceived as a direct assault by the Indigenous Limbu on their deeply held beliefs, spiritual identity, and their Ancestral Land.