Abstract:

The Treaty of Ḥudaybiyyah, ratified in 628 CE between the Prophet Muḥammad (ﷺ) and the Quraysh tribe, stands as a watershed moment in early Islamic history. Initially perceived by some as a diplomatic compromise, this treaty emerged as a masterstroke of strategic foresight, catalyzing the consolidation of Muslim hegemony across the Arabian Peninsula. This research adopts a rigorous methodology, encompassing a thorough analysis of primary sources, including ḥadīth compilations and early Islamic chronicles, and a comparative evaluation of contemporary historiographical accounts. By dissecting the intricate sociopolitical context and the precise terms of the treaty, this study unveils its profound implications for the expansion of Islām. The research elucidates how the treaty established a sophisticated framework for peaceful coexistence, forged critical strategic alliances, and laid the groundwork for the eventual triumphal conquest of Makkah. This analysis not only underscores the Prophet Muḥammad (ﷺ) unparalleled diplomatic acumen but also imparts enduring lessons in conflict resolution, strategic patience, and visionary leadership.

1.1. Introduction:

The Treaty of Ḥudaybiyyah is a defining chapter in the history of Islam, reflecting both the strategic brilliance of the Prophet Muḥammad (ﷺ) and the resilience of the early Muslim community. The treaty was a pivotal agreement between the Muslims of Madīnah and the Quraysh of Makkah that significantly altered the political landscape of the Arabian Peninsula.

This moment of diplomacy not only led to a cessation of hostilities but also paved the way for the eventual conquest of Makkah, thus consolidating Muslim power.

ِعَا َدَةُ اىْ حُدَيْبيَِتِ ِيَ فَصْوٌ حَاسٌِ ٌ فِي حاَرِيخِ الِْْسْلًََ ِ، حعَْنِسُ موَُّ ٍِ َِ اىْبزَِاعَتِ الْْسْخِزَاحيِْجِيتَِّ ىِيَّْب يِِّ ُحَ َّدٍ )ﷺ( َٗ ٍُزَُّٗٗتَ اىُْ جْخَ َعِ اىْ ُسْيٌِ ِ اىْ َُبنَِّزِ. مَا جَِ اىْ ِعاَ َدَةُ احفَِّاقاً َحْ َرِياًّ بَيِْ َ اىْ ُسْ يِ ِيِ َ فِي اىْ َدِيْ تَِ َقزَُيْشٍ فِي َنَّتَ، ِ ٍ ََّا غَيزََّ بشَِنْوٍ مَبيِزٍ

اىْ َشْ َدَ اىسِّيَاسِيَّ فِي شَبَ ِٔ اىْجَشِيزَةِ اىْعَزَبيَِّتِ. ىٌَ ْ حؤَُدِّ َذِٓ ِ اىيحَّْظَتُ اىدِّبْيُ ٍَ٘اسِيَّتُ فقَ طَْ إِىَٚ إِّ ْ َٖاءِ الْْعَْ َاهِ اىْعدََائيَِّتِ، بوَْ ٍَ َّدَثْ

أيَْضًا اىطَّزِيقَ ىِيفْخَحِْ اىِّْ َٖائيِِّ ىِ َنَّتَ، ٍِ ََّا عَشَّسَ ٍِ ِْ قُ َّةِ اىْ ُسْيِ َِيِ َ

The historical context surrounding the Treaty of Ḥudaybiyyah is essential to understand its far-reaching implications. At the time, the Muslim community in Madīnah was under constant threat from the Quraysh, who controlled Makkah and were hostile to Islam. Despite this, Prophet Muḥammad (ﷺ) sought peace through diplomacy, recognizing that a prolonged conflict would drain resources and impede the spread of Islam. The treaty that resulted was seen by some as a defeat, but it quickly proved to be a masterstroke of strategic foresight. This paper delves into the intricacies of the treaty, exploring its context, terms, and consequences, and highlights its significance in the broader framework of Islamic history.

1.2. Historical Context of the Treaty of Ḥudaybiyyah:

The Treaty of Ḥudaybiyyah, signed in 628 CE (6 AH), is a pivotal moment in Islamic history that highlights the complex dynamics between the early Muslim community and the Quraysh tribe of Makkah. To fully understand its historical context, we need to consider the sociopolitical landscape of Arabia at that time.

1.2.1. Background

After the Hijrah in 622 CE, Prophet Muḥammad (ﷺ) and his followers established a burgeoning Muslim community in Madīnah. This migration marked a significant turning point, as it allowed the Muslims to create a base of support free from the persecution they faced in Makkah. However, the conflict with the Quraysh, who were the dominant tribe in Makkah and staunch opponents of Islam, continued to escalate. The Quraysh viewed the growing influence of the Muslims in Madīnah as a direct threat to their power and economic interests, particularly since they profited from the pilgrimage trade to the Kaaba.

1.2.2. The Muslims’ Intent to Perform ʿUmrah

By the sixth year of Hijrah, the Muslims felt a pressing desire to perform ʿUmrah, which they had been unable to do since their migration. The pilgrimage was not only a religious obligation but also a significant cultural practice in Arabian society. In 628 CE, Prophet Muḥammad (ﷺ) resolved to lead a peaceful pilgrimage to Makkah, setting out with about 1,400 followers. This intention underscored their commitment to non-violence and diplomacy, contrasting sharply with the violent conflicts that had characterized earlier encounters.

1.2.3. Quraysh Response and Standoff at Ḥudaybiyyah

As the Muslims approached Makkah, the Quraysh, alarmed by this show of strength and solidarity, mobilized to prevent their entry. They were determined to maintain their dominance over the holy site and viewed the Muslims‟ pilgrimage as an affront. The two groups faced off at Ḥudaybiyyah, a location just outside Makkah, where the Muslims halted and established a camp. Negotiations began almost immediately. The Quraysh sent emissaries to assess the situation, and tensions ran high as both sides communicated their positions. The Muslims were firm in their intent to enter Makkah for pilgrimage, while the Quraysh insisted on their rights to control access to the city.

1.2.4. Significance

The Treaty of Ḥudaybiyyah proved to be a watershed moment for the Muslim community. In the following years, the peace allowed for the spread of Islam, leading to the conversion of numerous tribes. The treaty also demonstrated the Prophet (ﷺ) commitment to negotiation and diplomacy over conflict, laying the groundwork for future expansions of the Muslim state. In retrospect, what appeared as a setback transformed into a crucial turning point, showcasing the Prophet (ﷺ) foresight and the evolving nature of Muslim-Quraysh relations. The treaty was eventually broken by the Quraysh in 630 CE, prompting the Muslim community to march on Makkah and reclaim it, culminating in the peaceful conquest of the city. In summary, the Treaty of Ḥudaybiyyah not only highlighted the tensions of the time but also represented a significant strategic achievement for the early Muslim community, setting the stage for the future spread of Islam throughout the Arabian Peninsula.

1.3. Research Methodology:

The research methodology in the article employs a qualitative historical approach. It includes a thorough examination of primary Islamic texts, such as “ḥadīth collections” and early Islamic historical records, to directly interpret the historical events surrounding the treaty. Additionally, the study conducts a comparative analysis of modern historiographical sources to highlight diverse perspectives on the treaty. By exploring the socio-political conditions of the time, the research assesses the treaty‟s broader impact on Islamic expansion and leadership. This combination of primary source analysis and comparative historiography offers a nuanced understanding of the treaty‟s strategic and diplomatic importance.

1.4.The State of Affairs before the Treaty:

Prior to the treaty, the Quraysh were alarmed by the rapid expansion of Islam and the growing influence of the Prophet Muḥammad (ﷺ) in the Arabian Peninsula. The Battle of Badr (624 CE), the Battle of Uḥud (625 CE), and the Battle of the Trench (627 CE) had solidified the military prowess of the Muslims, but both sides were weary of continuous conflict. The Quraysh, who relied heavily on trade, were concerned about their economic interests, while the Muslims sought a peaceful opportunity to perform their religious obligations.

The Prophet Muḥammad (ﷺ) desire to avoid war and seek a peaceful resolution demonstrates his foresight and commitment to the welfare of the Muslim community. Rather than engage in yet another battle, he chose to negotiate, setting the stage for the Treaty of Ḥudaybiyyah.

1.4.1. The Terms of the Treaty:

The Treaty of Ḥudaybiyyah was an agreement that, at face value, appeared to heavily favor the Quraysh. The terms included the following key points:

1. Cessation of Hostilities: Both parties agreed to a ten-year truce, during which there would be no warfare between the Muslims and the Quraysh.
2. Delayed Pilgrimage: The Muslims were to return to Madīnah without performing ʿUmrah that year. They were, however, allowed to return the following year for a three-day period to perform the pilgrimage, during which the Quraysh would vacate Makkah.
3. Return of Fugitives: Any Muslim who fled to Madīnah from Makkah without the permission of their guardian would be returned to the Quraysh. However, any Quraysh who sought refuge with the Muslims would not be returned.
4. Tribal Alliances: Both parties were free to form alliances with other tribes. Any tribe that chose to ally with either the Muslims or the Quraysh would be considered a part of that treaty and subject to its terms.
5. Equal Treatment: Both Muslims and Quraysh would refrain from any act of treachery or aggression against each other

At first glance, the treaty seemed to put the Muslims at a disadvantage. Some companions, such as ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb (RA), expressed their dissatisfaction with the terms, feeling that the Prophet (PBUH) had conceded too much. However, the Prophet‟s wisdom and long-term vision were soon vindicated.

1.4.2. The Strategic Wisdom of the Treaty:

Although the Treaty of Ḥudaybiyyah appeared unfavorable to the Muslims at the time, it proved to be a diplomatic triumph. The truce allowed the Muslims to focus on spreading the message of Islam without the immediate threat of conflict with the Quraysh. During the tenyear peace period, Islam grew exponentially, with many tribes entering into alliances with the Muslims and converting to Islam.

1.4.3. Consolidation of Muslim Power:

The ten-year truce provided the Prophet Muḥammad (ﷺ) and the Muslim community with the time and stability they needed to consolidate their power. The treaty allowed the Muslims to engage in peaceful outreach, leading to an increase in conversions to Islam. Many tribes that had previously remained neutral or aligned with the Quraysh began to see the strength and resilience of the Muslim community and chose to ally themselves with the Prophet (ﷺ). The Prophet (ﷺ) ability to form alliances with tribes outside of Makkah further strengthened the Muslim position. These alliances, combined with the truce, effectively isolated the Quraysh, reducing their influence and weakening their economic and political power. The Quraysh‟s monopoly over the region began to crumble, and the Muslims emerged as a dominant force.

1.5. The Prophet (ﷺ) Diplomatic Acumen:

The Prophet Muḥammad (ﷺ) displayed remarkable diplomatic skills in negotiating the terms of the Treaty of Ḥudaybiyyah. He recognized that an immediate victory over the Quraysh was not necessary for the long-term success of Islam. By agreeing to the terms of the treaty, the Prophet (ﷺ) demonstrated his commitment to peace and his confidence in the eventual triumph of Islam. One of the most remarkable aspects of the treaty was the Prophet (ﷺ) acceptance of the seemingly unfair condition that Muslims fleeing to Madīnah from Makkah without their guardian‟s consent would be returned to the Quraysh. This clause was seen as a concession, but the Prophet (ﷺ) understood that Islam‟s appeal would continue to grow, and many people would willingly accept the faith regardless of the restrictions.

Moreover, the Prophet (ﷺ) willingness to accept the clause that required the Muslims to delay their pilgrimage demonstrated his patience and foresight. He knew that a temporary setback would not hinder the ultimate success of Islam. This decision also allowed the Prophet (ﷺ) to demonstrate his commitment to maintaining peace, even in the face of disappointment.

1.6. The Role of Faith and Trust in Allah (SWT):

The Treaty of Ḥudaybiyyah is a testament to the importance of faith and trust in Allah (SWT) during times of adversity. Despite the seemingly unfavorable terms, the Prophet Muḥammad

(ﷺ) and his companions placed their trust in Allah‟s wisdom. The Qur‟an itself acknowledges the treaty as a victory:

إَِّّا فخَحَْ اَ ىلََ فخَحًْا ٍُّبيِ اً

“Indeed, We have given you, [O Muḥammad], a clear victory.”

(Surah Al-Fath, 48:1)

This verse reassured the Muslims that the treaty, though initially seen as a setback, was a victory in disguise. The Prophet (ﷺ) unwavering trust in Allah (SWT) and his commitment to peaceful resolutions serve as an enduring example of how faith can lead to success, even in the face of challenging circumstances.

1.6.1. Lessons in Patience and Perseverance:

The Treaty of Ḥudaybiyyah teaches Muslims valuable lessons in patience and perseverance.

The companions, particularly ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb (RA), initially struggled to accept the terms of the treaty. However, they trusted the Prophet (ﷺ) judgment and eventually witnessed the wisdom behind his decision. This patience and perseverance were key to the success of Islam. Rather than rush into conflict or act impulsively, the Prophet (ﷺ) chose to take a longterm view of the situation, recognizing that short-term sacrifices would lead to greater rewards in the future.

1.6.2. Conflict Resolution and Peacebuilding in Islam:

The Treaty of Ḥudaybiyyah stands as a profound example of conflict resolution and peace building within the Islamic tradition. This pivotal event in early Islamic history not only illustrates the strategic wisdom of Prophet Muḥammad (ﷺ) but also encapsulates core Islamic values of mercy, justice, and the prioritization of peace over violence.

1.6. Principles of Conflict Resolution in Islam:

1.6.1. Emphasis on Diplomacy and Dialogue: 

The Prophet (ﷺ) approach to the Quraysh was rooted in dialogue rather than hostility. The Qur‟an emphasizes the importance of communication and understanding in resolving conflicts. For instance, Surah Al-Hujurat (49:10) states,

إَِّّ َا اىَْ ُؤْ ٍُِْ َُ٘ إخِْ َةٌ فأَصَْيِحُ ا بيَِْ َ أخََ َ٘يْنٌُ ْ َاحقَُّ٘ا اللَََّّ ىَعَيَّنٌُ ْ حزُْحََ ُ َ ُ٘

“The believers are but a single brotherhood. So make peace between your brothers.”

This reflects the overarching Islamic principle that encourages dialogue as a means to address grievances.

1.6.2. Mercy and Compassion: 

Islam places a strong emphasis on mercy, as articulated in the Qur‟an (Surah Al-Anbiya, 21:107):

َٗ ٍَا أرَْسَيَْْاكَ إلَِّْ رَحْ َتً ىِّيْعاَىََ ِيِ َ

“And we have not sent you, [O Muhammad], except as a mercy to the worlds”

The Prophet (ﷺ) decision to engage the Quraysh in negotiations, rather than opting for armed conflict, exemplifies this attribute. His actions demonstrated a profound understanding that mercy in times of conflict can pave the way for lasting peace.

1.6.3. Justice and Fairness: 

The Treaty of Ḥudaybiyyah included terms that were seen as equitable by both parties, even though they were not immediately favorable to the Muslims. The principle of justice is paramount in Islam, as highlighted in Surah An-Nisa (4:135):

يَا أيَُّٖ َا اىذَِّيِ َ آٍ َُْ ا مُُُّ٘٘ ا قَ َّ ا ٍِيَِ باِىْقِسْطِ شَُ دَاءَ لِِلَِّّ َىَ ْ٘ عَيَٚ ٰ أَ فسُِنٌُ ْ أَ ِٗ اىْ َاىِدَيِْ ِ َٗالْْقَْزَبِيِ َ ۚ إُِ يَنُِ ْ غَْ يِاًّ أَٗ ْ

فقَِيزًا فَالِلَُّّ أَْ ىَ ٰٚ بِ ِٖ ََا ۖ فلَََ حخَبَِّعُ٘ ا اىْ ََٖ ٘ ٰٙ أَُ حعَْدِىُ٘ ا ۚ َٗإُِ حيَْ ُ٘ ا أَٗ ْ حعُْزِضُ ا فَئُِ َّ اللَََّّ مَاُ َ بِ َا حعَْ َيُ َُ٘ خَبِيزًا

“O you who have believed, be persistently standing firm in justice, witnesses for Allah, even if it be against yourselves or parents and relatives. Whether one is rich or poor, Allah is more worthy of both. So follow not [personal] inclination, lest you not be just. And if you distort [your testimony] or refuse [to give it], then indeed Allah is ever acquainted with what you do.”

The Prophet (ﷺ) insistence on fair terms for both sides exemplified this commitment.

1.6.4. Avoidance of Bloodshed: 

One of the critical tenets of Islamic teaching is the sanctity of life. The Prophet Muḥammad (ﷺ) understood that continued conflict would only lead to unnecessary bloodshed. His negotiation with the Quraysh allowed both communities to avoid further violence, aligning with the Islamic ideal of preserving life and fostering peace.

1.7. The Role of the Prophet Muḥammad (ﷺ)

Prophet Muḥammad (ﷺ) role in the negotiations for the Treaty of Ḥudaybiyyah underscores his exceptional leadership and vision for peace. Despite the Quraysh‟s history of hostility toward Muslims, he approached the situation with the intent to establish a truce, believing that peace would benefit both parties in the long term.

1.7.1. Modeling Patience and Resilience: 

Throughout the negotiations, the Prophet(ﷺ) demonstrated remarkable patience and resilience. His ability to withstand criticism from his companions and remain focused on achieving peace is a testament to his character. This perseverance in pursuing dialogue rather than conflict serves as a model for conflict resolution in Islamic teachings.

1.7.2. Strategic Vision: 

The Prophet (ﷺ) strategic insight allowed him to recognize that the benefits of a treaty would extend beyond immediate grievances. By agreeing to a truce, the Muslims could consolidate their position in Madīnah and engage in further dialogues with other tribes, fostering a more extensive network of alliances.

1.8. Impact on the Muslim Community

The Treaty of Ḥudaybiyyah had significant implications for the early Muslim community:

1.8.1. Opportunity for Growth: 

With the cessation of hostilities, the Muslims could focus on spreading their message without the constant threat of conflict. This environment of peace allowed Islam to flourish, resulting in increased conversions and alliances with various tribes.

1.8.2. Reinforcement of Unity: 

The treaty fostered a sense of unity among Muslims.

The commitment to peace helped solidify the community‟s identity and collective purpose, as they were now seen as a legitimate and formidable force in Arabian society.

1.8.3. Legacy of Peacebuilding: 

The principles established during the Treaty of Ḥudaybiyyah have continued to inform Islamic approaches to conflict resolution. Subsequent Islamic scholars and leaders have drawn from this example, emphasizing the importance of negotiation, compromise, and understanding in addressing conflicts.

In conclusion, the Treaty of Ḥudaybiyyah serves as a timeless model of conflict resolution and peace building in Islam. It illustrates the importance of diplomacy, mercy, and justice in resolving disputes, reflecting the broader teachings of the Qur‟an and the prophetic tradition. The legacy of this treaty continues to influence Islamic thought on conflict resolution, highlighting the power of peaceful engagement even in the face of deep-rooted animosity. Through the Prophet Muḥammad (ﷺ) example, Muslims are reminded that true strength lies not in warfare, but in the ability to seek peace and foster understanding.

1.9. The Aftermath of the Treaty and the Conquest of Makkah:

The Treaty of Ḥudaybiyyah ultimately set the stage for the conquest of Makkah. In 630 CE, two years after the treaty was signed, the Quraysh violated the terms of the agreement by attacking one of the Prophet (ﷺ) allied tribes. This breach of the treaty provided the Muslims with a legitimate reason to take action.

In response to the Quraysh‟s violation, the Prophet Muḥammad (ﷺ) gathered an army of 10,000 Muslims and marched toward Makkah. The city, now weakened and isolated, surrendered without a fight. The Prophet (ﷺ) entered Makkah peacefully, demonstrating his magnanimity by granting amnesty to his former enemies.

The conquest of Makkah was a direct result of the Treaty of Ḥudaybiyyah. The ten-year truce had allowed the Muslims to strengthen their position, build alliances, and gain the upper hand over the Quraysh. When the Quraysh broke the treaty, they were no longer in a position to defend themselves, and the Muslims emerged victorious.

1.9.1. The Triumph of Islam:

The conquest of Makkah marked the culmination of the Prophet (ﷺ) mission to establish Islam in the Arabian Peninsula. The peaceful nature of the conquest exemplified the Prophet (ﷺ) commitment to mercy and forgiveness. Rather than seeking revenge against the Quraysh, who had persecuted the Muslims for years, the Prophet (ﷺ) extended an olive branch, allowing the people of Makkah to embrace Islam without fear of retribution. This moment of victory was a testament to the Prophet‟s leadership, patience, and trust in Allah (SWT). The Treaty of Ḥudaybiyyah had paved the way for this triumph, demonstrating that peace and diplomacy could lead to long-lasting success.

Conclusion:

The Treaty of Ḥudaybiyyah remains one of the most profound and significant moments in the history of Islam, exemplifying the unparalleled leadership and visionary foresight of Prophet Muḥammad (ﷺ). What initially appeared as a political and diplomatic compromise was, in fact, a masterstroke that would reshape the future of the Muslim community. The Prophet (ﷺ) decision to negotiate peace, rather than engage in conflict, reflected a deep understanding of human nature, societal dynamics, and divine wisdom. This was not a mere truce; it was a calculated pause that allowed the Muslim community to strengthen, expand its influence, and demonstrate its commitment to the principles of justice and harmony. At the heart of the treaty was the Prophet (ﷺ) unwavering faith in Allah (SWT) plan, trusting that the apparent setbacks would eventually yield far-reaching victories. The ten-year peace allowed Islam to spread through peaceful means, attracting new followers and solidifying the Muslim identity across the Arabian Peninsula. It showcased that diplomacy, even when perceived as yielding to opposition, could lead to triumph when grounded in patience, trust, and strategic thinking.

The Treaty of Ḥudaybiyyah is also a timeless lesson in conflict resolution, reminding the world that true strength lies not only in military power but also in the wisdom of knowing when to seek peace. The Prophet (ﷺ) ability to balance principle with pragmatism ensured that the treaty did not compromise Islamic values, yet achieved greater long-term objectives. Through his example, Muslims are reminded that conflicts are best resolved not through aggression, but through dialogue, negotiation, and patience. This is a lesson for leaders across all spheres: lasting success often requires the humility to choose peace over war and the patience to see long-term results. Moreover, the Treaty of Ḥudaybiyyah is a testament to the importance of unity within the Muslim ummah. By prioritizing the collective interests of the Muslim community over immediate gains, the Prophet (ﷺ) demonstrated that unity and solidarity are vital for enduring success. His leadership throughout the process was a model of resilience, showing how even in moments of apparent weakness, a leader can inspire strength and perseverance. The conquest of Makkah, which followed only a few years later, was a direct outcome of this strategic approach, further proving that true victories are won by those who have the vision and patience to navigate the complexities of human affairs with wisdom. In conclusion, the Treaty of Ḥudaybiyyah was not just a historical event; it was a pivotal turning point that continues to resonate with Muslims today. Its lessons of faith, patience, strategic diplomacy, and conflict resolution are timeless and universal, offering invaluable insights into leadership and governance. The Prophet Muḥammad (ﷺ) embodied the highest virtues of a leader who prioritized peace without compromising principles, and his actions serve as a guide for those seeking to achieve lasting unity and resilience within their communities. Ultimately, the Treaty of Ḥudaybiyyah stands as an enduring reminder that true leadership is measured by the ability to secure both peace and justice, forging a path of longterm success for the ummah and humanity at large.

.    .    .

References:

1. Al-Bukhārī, Muḥammad ibn Ismā„īl. Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī. Vol. 3. Riyadh: Darussalam Publishers, 1997, p. 234.
2. Al-Wāqidī, Muḥammad ibn „Umar. Kitāb al-Maghāzī. Vol. 2. Beirut: Dar al-Kutub alIlmiyyah, 2011, p. 404.
3. Ibn Hishām, „Abd al-Malik. Sīrah al-Nabawiyyah. Vol. 2. Beirut: Dar al-Fikr, 2009, p. 285.
4. Ibn Kathīr, Ismā„īl ibn „Umar. Al-Bidāyah wa al-Nihāyah. Vol. 4. Beirut: Dar al-Kutub alIlmiyyah, 2013, p. 120.
5. The Qur‟an. Surah Al-Ḥujurāt. 49:10.
6. The Qur‟an. Surah Al-Fatḥ. 48:1.
7. The Qur‟an. Surah Al-Anbiyā’. 21:107.
8. The Qur‟an. Surah An-Nisā’. 4:135.
9. Muslim, Abū al-Ḥusayn ibn al-Ḥajjāj. Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim. Vol. 2. Riyadh: Darussalam Publishers, 2007, p. 317.
10. Guillaume, Alfred. The Life of Muhammad: A Translation of Ibn Ishaq’s Sirat Rasul Allah. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1955, p. 502.
11. Lings, Martin. Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources. Rochester, VT: Inner Traditions, 2006, p. 202.
12. Watt, W. Montgomery. Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1961, pp. 155-156.
13. Peters, F. E. Muhammad and the Origins of Islam. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994, p. 161.
14. Armstrong, Karen. Muhammad: A Biography of the Prophet. New York: HarperCollins, 1993, p. 235.
15. Mubārakfūrī, Ṣafī al-Raḥmān. Ar-Raḥīq al-Makhtūm. Riyadh: Darussalam Publishers, 1996, p. 277.
16. Al-Ṭabarī, Muḥammad ibn Jarīr. The History of al-Ṭabarī: The Victory of Islam. Vol. 8. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1987, p. 93.
17. Al-Sallābī, „Alī Muḥammad. The Noble Life of the Prophet. Vol. 2. Riyadh: Darussalam Publishers, 2005, p. 112.
18. Donner, Fred M. The Early Islamic Conquests. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981, pp. 122-123.
19. Akram, D. M. The Sword of Allah: Khalid bin Al-Waleed, His Life and Campaigns. Riyadh: Maktaba Dar-us-Salam, 2004, p. 145.
20. Haykal, Muḥammad Ḥusayn. The Life of Muhammad. Indianapolis: American Trust Publications, 1976, p. 308.
21. Ibn Sa‟d, Muḥammad. Kitab al-Tabaqat al-Kabir. Vol. 2. Beirut: Dar al-Kutub alIlmiyyah, 2001, p. 98.
22. Al-Mubarakpuri, Ṣafī al-Raḥmān. The Sealed Nectar: Biography of the Noble Prophet. Riyadh: Darussalam Publishers, 2002, pp. 267-268.
23. Kennedy, Hugh. The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates. Harlow: Pearson Education, 2007, p. 67.
24. Watt, W. Montgomery. Islam and the Integration of Society. London: Routledge, 1974, pp. 198-199.