Marathas and Kingdoms

The Marathas and other provincial kingdoms dominated India after the failure of the Mughals led by Chattrapati Shivaji Maharaj. The rise in Maratha kingdoms took place majorly in between the 16th to 17th centuries.

The Marathas or Marathi are an Indian ethnic group, predominantly found in the state of Maharashtra. Apart from this, they settled in the regions of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka and Goa. As a result of regional and linguistic marginalization, the people of Goa and the neighboring Karwar area are known specifically as Konkan Marathas. The language of the Marathas is called Marathi.

It is an Indo-Aryan language. Closely related to Hindi and Bengali. It is spoken by about 70 million inhabitants of the western Indian state of Maharashtra. About 3 million more people speak the language outside Maharashtra. Marathi is the fourth most spoken language among Indian languages.

Marathi, the language of the Marathas, is one of the 22 official languages and 14 regional languages of India. Apart from this, Marathi has also been given the status of official language in Goa state along with Konkani language. This language is prevalent in Maharashtra's daily communication, education, administration, business, media etc.

The Maratha nation arose in India at the end of the Mughal Empire. The founder of this nation was Chhatrapati Shivaji, who is short in stature; But a strong man. This very talented man brought new military techniques. During Shivaji's lifetime, the Marathas conquered much of southern and western India. After his death, the Maratha Empire grew under the leadership of the heroic disciple Baji Rao.

Mughals were finally defeated in 1707. The Maratha great Chhatrapati Shahu, Dhanaji Yadav, Ghorpare and Baji Rao successively brought about 80% of the whole of India under Marathi rule. Their empire stretched from Peshawar in the north to Tamil Nadu in the south. Marathas made Punjab independent in 1756. They invaded Bengal six times from 1738 to 1746 and defeated the Nawab. Marathas lost to the Afghans in 1761, but 10 years later, under the leadership of Madhav Rao Peshawar, the Marathas occupied North India again. The Marathas were the most powerful independent warrior nation in all of India until they were defeated by the British in 1818.

According to Sir Bipan Chandra 

"The most important challenge to the decaying Mughal power came from the Maratha kingdom which was the most powerful of the succession states. In fact, it alone possessed the strength to fill the political vacuum created by the disintegration of the Mughal Empire. Moreover, it produced a number of brilliant commanders and statesmen needed for the task."

Chhatrapati Shivaji

• Name: Shivaji Bhonsle
• Date of Birth: February 19, 1630
• Birthplace: Shivneri Fort, Pune district, Maharashtra
• Parents: Shahaji Bhonsle (Father) and Jijabai (Mother)
• Reign: 1674–1680
• Spouse: Saibai, Soyarabai, Putalabai, Sakvarbai, Laxmibai, Kashibai
• Children: Sambhaji, Rajaram, Sakhubai Nimbalkar, Ranubai Jadhav, Ambikabai Mahadik, Rajkumaribai Shirke
• Religion: Hinduism
• Death: April 3, 1680
• Seat of Power: Raigad Fort, Maharashtra
• Successor: Sambhaji Bhonsle

Chatrapati Shivaji Maharaj was the founder of the Maratha Empire in western India. He is considered to be one of the greatest warriors of his time and even today, stories of his exploits are narrated as a part of the folklore. With his valor and great administrative skills, Shivaji carved out an enclave from the declining Adilshahi sultanate of Bijapur. It eventually became the genesis of the Maratha Empire. After establishing his rule, Shivaji implemented a competent and progressive administration with the help of a disciplined military and well-established administrative set-up. Shivaji is well-known for his innovative military tactics that centered around non-conventional methods leveraging strategic factors like geography, speed, and surprise to defeat his more powerful enemies.

Shivaji was born in the hill-fort of Shivneri, near the city of Junnar, which is now in Pune district. Scholars disagree on his date of birth; the Government of Maharashtra lists 19 February as a holiday commemorating Shivaji's birth (Shivaji Jayanti). Shivaji was named after a local deity, the goddess Shivai Devi.

Shivaji belonged to a Maratha family of the Bhonsle clan. Shivaji's father, Shahaji Bhonsle, was a Maratha general who served the Deccan Sultanates. His mother was Jijabai, the daughter of Lakhuji Jadhavrao of Sindhkhed, a Mughal-aligned sardar claiming descent from a Yadav royal family of Devagiri. His paternal grandfather Maloji (1552–1597) was an influential general of Ahmadnagar Sultanate, and was awarded the epithet of "Raja". He was given deshmukhi rights of Pune, Supe, Chakan, and Indapur to provide for military expenses. He was also given Fort Shivneri for his family's residence (c. 1590).

At the time of Shivaji's birth, power in the Deccan was shared by three Islamic sultanates: Bijapur, Ahmednagar, and Golkonda. Shahaji often changed his loyalty between the Nizamshahi of Ahmadnagar, the Adilshah of Bijapur and the Mughals, but always kept his jagir (fiefdom) at Pune and his small army.

He grew up studying Ramayana and also Mahabharata. He showed intense interest in the religious teachings, especially of the Hindu and Sufi Saints. He was brought up by his mother Jijabai and also by his administrator Dadoji Kond Deo. Dadoji taught him horse riding, archery, patta, and also several other fighting techniques after his father left for Karnataka with his second wife Tukabai.

He was known as the Father of Indian Navy, Shivaji was the first to realise the importance of having a naval force, and therefore he strategically established a navy and forts at the coastline to defend the Konkan side of Maharashtra. The Jaigad, Vijaydurg, Sindhudurg and other such forts still stand to testify his efforts and ideas.

Contrary to popular belief, Shivaji was not named after Lord Shiva. In fact, he was named after a regional Goddess Shivai. His mother prayed to the goddess for a son and was blessed with one. The god-like stature was given to him for his deeds, and not his name.

The secular ruler was very accommodating of all religions. He had numerous Muslim soldiers in his army. His only aim was to overthrow Mughal rule and establish Maratha empire. He was also very supportive of people who converted to Hinduism.

Shivaji was a dependable supporter of women and their honour. He opposed all kinds of violence, harassment and dishonour against women. Anyone under his rule caught violating woman's rights was severely punished. In fact, women of captured territories were also released unharmed, and with integrity.

Chhatrapati Shivaji was called as the 'Mountain Rat' and was widely known for his guerrilla warfare tactics. He was called so because of his awareness in geography of his land, and guerrilla tactics like raiding, ambushing and surprise attacks on his enemies. He knew the importance of a good army, and with his skills, expanded his father's 2000 soldier army to 10,000 soldiers.

In 1636, the Adil Shahi sultanate of Bijapur invaded the kingdoms to its south.The sultanate had recently become a tributary state of the Mughal empire. It was being helped by Shahaji, who at the time was a chieftain in the Maratha uplands of western India. Shahaji was looking for opportunities of rewards of jagir land in the conquered territories, the taxes on which he could collect as an annuity.

Shahaji was a rebel from brief Mughal service. Shahaji's campaigns against the Mughals, supported by the Bijapur government, were generally unsuccessful. He was constantly pursued by the Mughal army, and Shivaji and his mother Jijabai had to move from fort to fort.

In 1636, Shahaji joined in the service of Bijapur and obtained Poona as a grant. Shahaji, being deployed in Bangalore by the Bijapuri ruler Adilshah, appointed Dadoji Kondadeo as Poona's administrator.

Shivaji and Jijabai settled in Poona. Kondadeo died in 1647 and Shivaji took over its administration. One of his first acts directly challenged the Bijapuri government.

In 1646, 16-year-old Shivaji captured the Torna Fort, taking advantage of the confusion prevailing in the Bijapur court due to the illness of Sultan Mohammed Adil Shah, and seized the large treasure he found there. In the following two years, Shivaji took several important forts near Pune, including Purandar, Kondhana, and Chakan. He also brought areas east of Pune around Supa, Baramati, and Indapur under his direct control. He used the treasure found at Torna to build a new fort named Rajgad. That fort served as the seat of his government for over a decade. After this, Shivaji turned west to the Konkan and took possession of the important town of Kalyan. The Bijapur government took note of these happenings and sought to take action. On 25 July 1648, Shahaji was imprisoned by a fellow Maratha sardar called Baji Ghorpade, under the orders of the Bijapur government, in a bid to contain Shivaji.

Shahaji was released in 1649, after the capture of Jinji secured Adilshah's position in Karnataka. During 1649–1655, Shivaji paused in his conquests and quietly consolidated his gains.[38] Following his father's release, Shivaji resumed raiding, and in 1656, under controversial circumstances, killed Chandrarao More, a fellow Maratha feudatory of Bijapur, and seized the valley of Javali, near the present-day hill station of Mahabaleshwar.The conquest of Javali allowed Shivaji to extend his raids into south and southwest Maharashtra. In addition to the Bhonsle and the More families, many others—including Sawant of Sawantwadi, Ghorpade of Mudhol, Nimbalkar of Phaltan, Shirke, Mane, and Mohite—also served Adilshahi of Bijapur, many with Deshmukhi rights. Shivaji adopted different strategies to subdue these powerful families, such as forming marital alliances, dealing directly with village Patils to bypass the Deshmukhs, or subduing them by force. Shahaji in his later years had an ambivalent attitude to his son, and disavowed his rebellious activities.He told the Bijapuris to do whatever they wanted with Shivaji. Shahaji died around 1664–1665 in a hunting accident.

Tiger Nail:

The bagh nakh,vagh nakh, or vagh nakhya (Marathi: वाघनख / वाघनख्या, Bengali: বাঘনখ, Hindi: बाघ नख, Urdu: باگھ نکھ, lit. tiger claw) is a "fist-load, claw-like" dagger, originating from the Indian subcontinent, designed to fit over the knuckles or be concealed under and against the palm. It consists of four or five curved blades affixed to a crossbar or glove, and is designed to slash through skin and muscle. It is believed to have been inspired by the armament of big cats, and the term bagh nakh itself means tiger's claw in Hindi.

There are conflicting reports of the time period in which the bagh nakh first appeared. Poisoned bagh nakh had been used by the Rajput clans for assassinations. The most well-known usage of the weapon was by the first Maratha leader Shivaji who used a bichuwa and bagh nakh to kill the Bijapur general Afzal Khan.

An early-20th-century painting by Sawlaram Haldankar of Shivaji fighting the Bijapuri general Afzal Khan. It is a popular weapon among the Nihang Sikhs who wear it in their turbans and often hold one in their left hand while wielding a larger weapon such as a sword in the right hand. It is recommended that Nihang women carry a bagh nakh when going alone to dangerous areas. The Nihangs also have a number of traditional weapons one of them being the Sher-Panja (literally - lion's paw) which is inspired by the bagh nakh. Instead of going in between the gaps in the fingers the Sher panja goes over the wrist and fingers and has claws coming out.

While often associated with thieves and assassins,the bagh nakh was also used by wrestlers in a form of fighting called naki ka kusti or "claw wrestling" which persisted even under British colonial rule. M. Rousselete, who visited Baroda in 1864, described "naki-ka-kausti" as one of the raja's favourite forms of entertainment.

"The weapons, fitted into a kind of handle, were fastened by thongs to the closed right hand. The men, drunk with bhang or Indian hemp, rushed upon each other and tore like tigers at face and body; forehead-skins would hang like shreds; necks and ribs were laid open, and not infrequently one or both would bleed to death. The ruler's excitement on these occasions often grew to such a pitch that he could scarcely restrain himself from imitating the movements of the duellists.

After the Direct Action Day riots, the Bengali Hindu girls, in order to defend themselves, began to wear a kind of sharp weapon resembling bagh nakh while going to school.

In the Walt Disney movie, Aladdin and the King of Thieves, the main movie's antagonist, Sa'luk, wields this kind of weapon, made of gold.

After centuries, it is set to return to its homeland(India) from the United Kingdom, where it has been housed in London’s Victoria and Albert Museum.

The Bijapur sultanate was displeased with their losses to Shivaji's forces, with their vassal Shahaji disavowing his son's actions. After a peace treaty with the Mughals, and the general acceptance of the young Ali Adil Shah II as the sultan, the Bijapur government became more stable, and turned its attention towards Shivaji.In 1657, the sultan, or more likely his mother and regent, sent Afzal Khan, a veteran general, to arrest Shivaji. Before engaging him, the Bijapuri forces desecrated the Tulja Bhavani Temple, a holy site for Shivaji's family, and the Vithoba temple at Pandharpur, a major pilgrimage site for Hindus.

Pursued by Bijapuri forces, Shivaji retreated to Pratapgad fort, where many of his colleagues pressed him to surrender. The two forces found themselves at a stalemate, with Shivaji unable to break the siege, while Afzal Khan, having a powerful cavalry but lacking siege equipment, was unable to take the fort. After two months, Afzal Khan sent an envoy to Shivaji suggesting the two leaders meet in private, outside the fort, for negotiations.

The two met in a hut in the foothills of Pratapgad fort on 10 November 1659. The arrangements had dictated that each come armed only with a sword, and attended by one follower. Shivaji, suspecting Afzal Khan would arrest or attack him,wore armour beneath his clothes, concealed a bagh nakh (metal "tiger claw") on his left arm, and had a dagger in his right hand.What transpired is not known with historical certainty, mainly Maratha legends tell the tale; however, it is agreed that the two wound up in a physical struggle that proved fatal for Khan. Khan's dagger failed to pierce Shivaji's armour, but Shivaji disemboweled him; Shivaji then fired a cannon to signal his hidden troops to attack the Bijapuri army.

In the ensuing Battle of Pratapgarh, Shivaji's forces decisively defeated the Bijapur Sultanate's forces. More than 3,000 soldiers of the Bijapur army were killed; and one sardar of high rank, two sons of Afzal Khan, and two Maratha chiefs were taken prisoner. After the victory, a grand review was held by Shivaji below Pratapgarh. The captured enemy, both officers and men, were set free and sent back to their homes with money, food, and other gifts. Marathas were rewarded accordingly.

Having defeated the Bijapuri forces sent against him, Shivaji and his army marched towards the Konkan coast and Kolhapur, seizing Panhala fort, and defeating Bijapuri forces sent against them, under Rustam Zaman and Fazl Khan, in 1659. In 1660, Adilshah sent his general Siddi Jauhar to attack Shivaji's southern border, in alliance with the Mughals who planned to attack from the north. At that time, Shivaji was encamped at Panhala fort with his forces. Siddi Jauhar's army besieged Panhala in mid-1660, cutting off supply routes to the fort. During the bombardment of Panhala, Siddi Jauhar purchased grenades from the English at Rajapur, and also hired some English artillerymen to assist in his bombardment of the fort, conspicuously flying a flag used by the English. This perceived betrayal angered Shivaji, who in December would retaliate by plundering the English factory at Rajapur and capturing four of the owners, imprisoning them until mid-1663.

After months of siege, Shivaji negotiated with Siddi Jauhar and handed over the fort on 22 September 1660, withdrawing to Vishalgad; Shivaji would retake Panhala in 1673.

Shivaji escaped from Panhala by cover of night, and as he was pursued by the enemy cavalry, his Maratha sardar Baji Prabhu Deshpande of Bandal Deshmukh, along with 300 soldiers, volunteered to fight to the death to hold back the enemy at Ghod Khind ("horse ravine") to give Shivaji and the rest of the army a chance to reach the safety of the Vishalgad fort.

In the ensuing Battle of Pavan Khind, the smaller Maratha force held back the larger enemy to buy time for Shivaji to escape. Baji Prabhu Deshpande was wounded but continued to fight until he heard the sound of cannon fire from Vishalgad, signalling Shivaji had safely reached the fort, on the evening of 13 July 1660.Ghod Khind (khind meaning "a narrow mountain pass") was later renamed Paavan Khind ("sacred pass") in honour of Bajiprabhu Deshpande, Shibosingh Jadhav, Fuloji, and all other soldiers who fought there.

Conflict with the Mughals:

Until 1657, Shivaji maintained peaceful relations with the Mughal Empire. Shivaji offered his assistance to Aurangzeb, the son of the Mughal Emperor and viceroy of the Deccan, in conquering Bijapur, in return for formal recognition of his right to the Bijapuri forts and villages in his possession. Dissatisfied with the Mughal response, and receiving a better offer from Bijapur, he launched a raid into the Mughal Deccan. Shivaji's confrontations with the Mughals began in March 1657, when two of Shivaji's officers raided the Mughal territory near Ahmednagar. This was followed by raids in Junnar, with Shivaji carrying off 300,000 hun in cash and 200 horses.Aurangzeb responded to the raids by sending Nasiri Khan, who defeated the forces of Shivaji at Ahmednagar. However, Aurangzeb's countermeasures against Shivaji were interrupted by the rainy season and his battles with his brothers over the succession to the Mughal throne, following the illness of the emperor Shah Jahan.

At the request of Badi Begum of Bijapur, Aurangzeb, now the Mughal emperor, sent his maternal uncle Shaista Khan, with an army numbering over 150,000, along with a powerful artillery division, in January 1660 to attack Shivaji in conjunction with Bijapur's army led by Siddi Jauhar. Shaista Khan, with his better equipped and well provisioned army of 80,000 seized Pune. He also took the nearby fort of Chakan, besieging it for a month and a half before breaching the walls. He established his residence at Shivaji's palace of Lal Mahal.

On the night of 5 April 1663, Shivaji led a daring night attack on Shaista Khan's camp. He, along with 400 men, attacked Shaista Khan's mansion, broke into Khan's bedroom and wounded him. Khan lost three fingers.In the scuffle, Shaista Khan's son and several wives, servants, and soldiers were killed.The Khan took refuge with the Mughal forces outside of Pune, and Aurangzeb punished him for this embarrassment with a transfer to Bengal.

In retaliation for Shaista Khan's attacks, and to replenish his now-depleted treasury, in 1664 Shivaji sacked the port city of Surat, a wealthy Mughal trading centre.On 13 February 1665, he also conducted a naval raid on Portuguese-held Basrur in present-day Karnataka, and gained a large plunder.

The attacks on Shaista Khan and Surat enraged Aurangzeb. In response, he sent the Rajput general Jai Singh I with an army numbering around 15,000 to defeat Shivaji. Throughout 1665, Jai Singh's forces pressed Shivaji, with their cavalry razing the countryside, and besieging Shivaji's forts. The Mughal commander succeeded in luring away several of Shivaji's key commanders, and many of his cavalrymen, into Mughal service. By mid-1665, with the fortress at Purandar besieged and near capture, Shivaji was forced to come to terms with Jai Singh.

In the Treaty of Purandar, signed by Shivaji and Jai Singh on 11 June 1665, Shivaji agreed to give up 23 of his forts, keeping 12 for himself, and pay compensation of 400,000 gold hun to the Mughals. Shivaji agreed to become a vassal of the Mughal empire, and to send his son Sambhaji, along with 5,000 horsemen, to fight for the Mughals in the Deccan, as a mansabdar.

Arrest in Agra and escape

In 1666, Aurangzeb summoned Shivaji to Agra (though some sources instead state Delhi), along with his nine-year-old son Sambhaji. Aurangzeb's planned to send Shivaji to Kandahar, now in Afghanistan, to consolidate the Mughal empire's northwestern frontier. However, on 12 May 1666, Shivaji was made to stand at court alongside relatively low-ranking nobles, men he had already defeated in battle. Shivaji took offence, stormed out, and was promptly placed under house arrest. Ram Singh, son of Jai Singh, guaranteed custody of Shivaji and his son.

Shivaji's position under house arrest was perilous, as Aurangzeb's court debated whether to kill him or continue to employ him. Jai Singh, having assured Shivaji of his personal safety, tried to influence Aurangzeb's decision. Meanwhile, Shivaji hatched a plan to free himself. He sent most of his men back home and asked Ram Singh to withdraw his guarantees to the emperor for the safe custody of himself and his son. He surrendered to Mughal forces. Shivaji then pretended to be ill and began sending out large baskets packed with sweets to be given to the Brahmins and poor as penance. On 17 August 1666, by putting himself in one of the large baskets and his son Sambhaji in another, Shivaji escaped and left Agra.

After Shivaji's escape, hostilities with the Mughals ebbed, with the Mughal sardar Jaswant Singh acting as an intermediary between Shivaji and Aurangzeb for new peace proposals. Between 1666 and 1668, Aurangzeb conferred the title of raja on Shivaji. Sambhaji was also restored as a Mughal mansabdar with 5,000 horses. Shivaji at that time sent Sambhaji, with general Prataprao Gujar, to serve with the Mughal viceroy in Aurangabad, Prince Mu'azzam. Sambhaji was also granted territory in Berar for revenue collection. Aurangzeb also permitted Shivaji to attack Bijapur, ruled by the decaying Adil Shahi dynasty; the weakened Sultan Ali Adil Shah II sued for peace and granted the rights of sardeshmukhi and chauthai to Shivaji.

Treaty of Purander (1665):

Aurangzeb deputed Raja Jai Singh, one of his ablest commanders and diplomats to take strong action against Shivaji. Jai Singh captured several forts and Shivaji was forced to sign a peace treat) in 1665.

The treaty contained the following terms:

1. Shivaji surrendered twenty-three of his forts and territory yielding an annual revenue of four lakhs of hun.
2. Shivaji was left with only twelve forts and territory which yielded annual revenue of one lakh of hun.
3. Shivaji accepted the suzerainty of the Mughuls but, instead of personal attendance at the court, deputed his son, Shambhuji with 5,000 horse at the Mughul-court.
4. Shivaji agreed to support the Mughuls against Bijapur. Another term was added to the treaty afterwards by which:
5. Shivaji agreed to pay forty lakhs of hurts to the Mughuls in thirteen years provided the territory of Konkan which yielded annual revenue of four lakhs of huns’ and the territory of Balaghat which was in the possession of Bijapur and yielded an annual income of five lakhs of ‘huns’ were assigned to him. The treaty was a great diplomatic success of Raja Jai Singh. Shivaji personally handed over the key of Sinhgarh fort to Jai Singh’s son and joined Jai Singh with his force in the war on Bijapur.

Shivaji’s visit to Agra

Jai Singh persuaded Shivaji to visit Aurangzeb’s court by holding out very high hopes to him. He also took upon personal responsibility for his safety at Agra, the capi­tal of the Mughal empire. According to some historians, Shivaji agreed to go to Agra for having personal knowledge about Aurangzeb and his sources of strength.

The Prime Minister, Asad Khan led Shivaji and his son to the emperor’s presence. Both offered the customary nazar. Then both were taken back and asked to stand in the third row of nobles. Noticing this insult, Shivaji burst out in a sort of open defiance complaining the breach of the terms. Aurangzeb was enraged. Shivaji was sent to a new residence, more secluded where he could be killed without a public scandal.

Shivaji thought of a plan to escape. He pretended to be ill and started sending outside baskets of sweets for distribution among the Brahmans and the poor. These baskets were checked for sometime by the guards but later on watch on the sweets baskets were relaxed.

Shivaji took advantage of this and he and his son went out in two baskets. It is said that he had bribed a few Mughal officers not to check all the sweets baskets. Afterwards he disguised himself as a Sanyasi (hermit) and reached Maharashtra after twenty-five days. During this period he visited Mathura, Allahabad, Banaras, Gondwana and Golkunda on the way. In 1668 peace was again restored with Aurangzeb and Shivaji. During 1668-69, Shivaji occupied himself with the reorganisation of his internal administration.

Again struggle with the Mughals. After a brief respite, hostilities between Shivaji and Aurangzeb again started. This time Shivaji was able to recover all the forts and territory that he had to surren­der in terms of Treaty of Purandhar in 1665. Shivaji plundered Surat again in 1670. Between 1670 and 1674, the Marathas got success everywhere. The Mughal power in the Deccan was crippled. He also snatched away several forts from Bijapur.

The peace between Shivaji and the Mughals lasted until 1670, after which Aurangzeb became suspicious of the close ties between Shivaji and Mu'azzam, who he thought might usurp his throne, and may even have been receiving bribes from Shivaji. Also at that time, Aurangzeb, occupied in fighting the Afghans, greatly reduced his army in the Deccan; many of the disbanded soldiers quickly joined Maratha service.The Mughals also took away the jagir of Berar from Shivaji to recover the money lent to him a few years earlier.In response, Shivaji launched an offensive against the Mughals and in a span of four months recovered a major portion of the territories that had been surrendered to them.

Shivaji sacked Surat for a second time in 1670; the English and Dutch factories were able to repel his attack, but he managed to sack the city itself, including plundering the goods of a Muslim prince from Mawara-un-Nahr, who was returning from Mecca. Angered by the renewed attacks, the Mughals resumed hostilities with the Marathas, sending a force under Daud Khan to intercept Shivaji on his return home from Surat; this force was defeated in the Battle of Vani-Dindori near present-day Nashik.

In October 1670, Shivaji sent his forces to harass the English at Bombay; as they had refused to sell him war materiel, his forces blocked English woodcutting parties from leaving Bombay. In September 1671, Shivaji sent an ambassador to Bombay, again seeking materiel, this time for the fight against Danda-Rajpuri. The English had misgivings of the advantages Shivaji would gain from this conquest, but also did not want to lose any chance of receiving compensation for his looting their factories at Rajapur. The English sent Lieutenant Stephen Ustick to treat with Shivaji, but negotiations failed over the issue of the Rajapur indemnity. Numerous exchanges of envoys followed over the coming years, with some agreement as to the arms issues in 1674, but Shivaji was never to pay the Rajapur indemnity before his death, and the factory there dissolved at the end of 1682.

Battles of Umrani and Nesari

In 1674, Prataprao Gujar, the sarnaubat (commander-in-chief of the Maratha forces), was sent to push back the invading force led by the Bijapuri general, Bahlol Khan. Prataprao's forces defeated and captured the opposing general in the battle, after cutting-off their water supply by encircling a strategic lake, which prompted Bahlol Khan to sue for peace. In spite of Shivaji's specific warnings against doing so, Prataprao released Bahlol Khan, who started preparing for a fresh invasion.

Shivaji sent a letter to Prataprao, expressing his displeasure and refusing him an audience until Bahlol Khan was re-captured. Upset by this rebuke, Prataprao found Bahlol Khan and charged his position with only six other horsemen, leaving his main force behind, and was killed in combat. Shivaji was deeply grieved on hearing of Prataprao's death, and arranged for the marriage of his second son, Rajaram, to Prataprao's daughter. Prataprao was succeeded by Hambirrao Mohite, as the new sarnaubat. Raigad Fort was newly built by Hiroji Indulkar, as a capital of the nascent Maratha kingdom.

Shivaji & his Administration:

Sivaji was not only a great general and statesman but also an able administrator of great merit. Like other medieval rulers, Sivaji was an autocrat with all powers concentrated in his heads but he was a benevolent despot sincerely desired to promote the welfare of his subjects. In the field of administration, he was assisted by a Council of eight ministers called. Ashta Pradhan. It was only an advisory board.

The Ministers were:

1. Peshwa (Prime Minister): He looked after the general administration and welfare of the state. He also represented the king in his absence.
2. Amatya (Finance Minister): He used to check the income and expenditure of the state.
3. Mantri (The Chronicler): He was responsible for the personal safety of the king, supervised his daily routine work and recorded everything that happened at court.
4. Sumant (The Foreign Secretary): He advised the king regarding questions of war and peace with foreign powers.
5. Sachiva (The Home Secretary): He was in charge of all correspondence of the king. He supervised the draft of letters and put his seal on them and official documents.
6. Senapati (Commander-in-chief): He was in charge of recruitment, organization, discipline, and training of the soldiers and arranging their suppliers.
7. Danadhyaksha (Head of Ecclestial Department): He looked after the grants to religious and learners, and men fixed the dates for religious ceremonies and decided theological disputes and questions relating to custom.
8. Nyayadhisa (Chief Justice): He was the highest judicial authority in the kingdom and looked after the judicial system of the state. All the Ministers of the Council except the Nyayadhisa and Danadhyaksha were military officers and were expected to command the army if there was need for it.

Provincial Administration:

Shivaji had divided his kingdom into three provinces. Each province was placed under a Viceroy or Governor and he was responsible to the king. He was assisted by a staff of eight officers. More Trimbak Pingle was the governor of Northern Province. The southern province was governed by Annajir Datto. Dattaji Pant was the governor of south-eastern province. Sivaji had conquered the territory on the eastern side of the river Tungabhadra but could not consolidate his rule over this territory and ruled it by sheer force.

Fiscal Administration:

Sivaji had abolished the jagir system and also confiscated the lands given to religious institutions and substituted cash payments for them. He completely reorganised the land revenue system. He abolished the farming system and introduced direct management. The officers appointed by Sivaji collected revenues from the royots or cultivators.

The land under cultivation was surveyed and measured with the half of a Kathi or measuring rod and produce was roughly assessed. The share of the state was first fixed at 30 per cent but later on it was raised to 40 per cent of the produce when other taxes and cesses were abolished by Sivaji.

The revenue was collected both in cash and in kind. Agriculture was encouraged and the state used to advance loans to the peasants in times of famine and this amount was realized in instalments according to the means of the debtor. Sivaji’s revenue administration was beneficial to the peasants.

Besides land revenue, Sivaji collected Chautha and Sardeshmukhi from the territory which was either under his own control or under his enemies. There is a great divergence of opinion among scholars regarding levy of Chauth. According to Mr. Sardeshai, Chauth was a tribute exacted from the hostile or conquered territories. Dr. Sureadra Nath Sen has expressed the view that “Chauth was nothing but a contribution exacted by a military leader”.

But Prof. J.N. Sarkar holds a different view that “The payment of Chauth merely saved a place from the unwelcome presence of Maratha soldiers”. However it is generally accepted that Chauth was a military contribution which was one fourth of the standard revenue of the country and it was paid to ward off the attack of the Marathas. Sardeshmukhi was an additional charge of 10% which Sivaji demanded on the basis of his claim as the hereditary Sardeshmukh (headman) of his country.

Administration of Justice:

The administration of Justice was of a primitive type. In the villages the elders settled the cases in the Panchayats. The criminal cases were tried by Patel. Appeals in civil and criminal cases were entertained by the Nyayadhisa whose decisions were based upon ancient Smritis. The Hazir Majlis was the final court of appeal.

Military Administration:

Shivaji was a capable general and organised the Military system which he had inherited from his predecessors on an efficient basis. The forts had a special place in his military administration. Of course, the hill fort with adjoining territory under a Havaldar formed the unit of Sivaji’s government and Sivaji had 280 forts in his possession. Sivaji’s important forts were Rajgarh, Raigarh, Tonna and Pratapgarh.

Shivaji maintained a regular standing army and also provided quarters for it during the rainy season. His army was always ready for duty and soldiers were provided with regular salaries throughout the year. At the time of his death his army consisted of 30 to 40 thousand cavalry and one lakh infantry. He possessed an elephant corps which numbered 1260 and also a fleet of 200 men of war.

There was regular gradation of officers in the army. The cavalry was divided into two classes—the Bargis and the Shiledars. The Bargis were supplied with horses and weapons by the state while the Shiledars had to bring their own horses and weapons. The lowest unit in the cavalry consisted of 25 troopers and it was placed under a Havaldar.

Five Havaldars formed one Jumla under a Jumladar. Ten jumladars were placed under a Hazari who was given a salary of 1,000 huns. Five Hazaris were under a Panjhazari, who used to get a salary of 2,000 huns. The Panjhazaris were under the command of Sar-i-nobat who was the supreme commander of the cavalry. For every 25 troopers a farrier and a water-carrier were provided by the state.

The infantry was also organized in the same way. Nine soldiers constituted the smallest unit who were under the command of a Naik. Over five Naiks was placed a Havaldar and over three or four Havaldars there was the Jumladars. Ten Jumladars were under the command of a Hazari and over every seven hazaris there was one sapt-hazari. The Hazaris were under the command of Sar-i-nobat.

The army of Sivaji was disciplined and it consisted of both Hindus and Muslims. Every care was taken in the recruitment, training and equipment of the army. The soldiers and officers were paid cash. The army was placed under strict discipline and soldiers were not allowed to light fire or smoke near houses and fields under cultivation or to take ladies and servants with them. The soldiers who broke their rules were severely punished.

Sivaji also maintained a navy. In his navy, Sivaji had 400 ships of different kinds and the navy was divided into two parts. Each part was commanded by two different officers. He also organized a merchant navy. Dr. S.N. Sen opines. “Unlike many of his contemporaries, the great Maratha leader had realized that a strong naval power without a strong mercantile navy was impossibility”. Thus Sivaji tried to build a strong navy. But is no match to the navy of Europeans as there was lack of artillery in his ships.

Religious policy:

When Aurangzeb imposed the Jizya tax on non-Muslims on 3 April 1679, Shivaji wrote an admonishing letter to Aurangzeb criticising his tax policy. He wrote:

"In strict justice, the Jizya is not at all lawful. If you imagine piety in oppressing and terrorising the Hindus, you ought to first levy the tax on Raj Singh I, who is the head of Hindus. But to oppress ants and flies is not at all valour nor spirit. If you believe in Quran, God is the lord of all men and not just of Muslims only. Verily, Islam and Hinduism are terms of contrast. They are used by the true Divine Painter for blending the colours and filling in the outlines. If it is a mosque, the call to prayer is chanted in remembrance of God. If it is a temple, the bells are rung in yearning for God alone. To show bigotry to any man's religion and practices is to alter the words of the Holy Book."

Noting that Shivaji had stemmed the spread of the neighbouring Muslim states, his contemporary, the poet Kavi Bhushan stated:

"Had not there been Shivaji, Kashi would have lost its culture, Mathura would have been turned into a mosque and all would have been circumcised."

Ramdas

Shivaji was a contemporary of Samarth Ramdas. Historian Stewart Gordon concludes about their relationship:

"Older Maratha histories asserted that Shivaji was a close follower of Ramdas, a Brahmin teacher, who guided him in an orthodox Hindu path; recent research has shown that Shivaji did not meet or know Ramdas until late in his life. Rather, Shivaji followed his own judgement throughout his remarkable career."

Royal seal of Shivaji

Seals were a means to confer authenticity on official documents. Shahaji and Jijabai had Persian seals. But Shivaji, right from the beginning, used Sanskrit for his seal. The seal proclaims: "This seal of Shiva, son of Shah, shines forth for the welfare of the people and is meant to command increasing respect from the universe like the first phase of the moon."

Shivaji was admired for his heroic exploits and clever stratagems in the contemporary accounts of English, French, Dutch, Portuguese, and Italian writers. Contemporary English writers compared him with Alexander, Hannibal, and Julius Caesar.[192] The French traveller Francois Bernier wrote in his Travels in Mughal India:

"I forgot to mention that during pillage of Sourate, Seva-Gy, the Holy Seva-Gi! respected the habitation of the Reverend Father Ambrose, the Capuchin missionary. 'The Frankish Padres are good men', he said 'and shall not be attacked.' He spared also the house of a deceased Delale or Gentile broker, of the Dutch, because assured that he had been very charitable while alive."

Mughal depictions of Shivaji were largely negative, referring to him simply as "Shiva" without the honorific "-ji". One Mughal writer in the early 1700s described Shivaji's death as kafir bi jahannum raft (lit. 'the infidel went to Hell'). His chivalrous treatment of enemies and women has been praised by Mughal authors, including Khafi Khan. Jadunath Sarkar writes:

"His chivalry to women and strict enforcement of morality in his camp was a wonder in that age and has extorted the admiration of hostile critics like Khafi Khan."

James Grant Duff, a British administrator, published his 3-volume work on History of Marathas in 1863.This work is mostly a chronological sequence of events and more of a political history with little to no insight about other aspects of Maharashtra's history.

In the mid–19th century, Marathi social reformer Jyotirao Phule wrote his interpretation of the Shivaji legend, portraying him as a hero of the shudras and Dalits. Phule's 1869 ballad-form story of Shivaji was met with great hostility by the Brahmin-dominated media.

In 1895, the Indian nationalist leader Lokmanya Tilak organised what was to be an annual festival to mark the birthday of Shivaji. He portrayed Shivaji as the "opponent of the oppressor", with possible negative implications concerning the colonial government.Tilak denied any suggestion that his festival was anti-Muslim or disloyal to the government, but simply a celebration of a hero.[198] These celebrations prompted a British commentator in 1906 to note: "Cannot the annals of the Hindu race point to a single hero whom even the tongue of slander will not dare call a chief of dacoits...?"

One of the first commentators to reappraise the critical British view of Shivaji was M. G. Ranade, whose Rise of the Maratha Power (1900) declared Shivaji's achievements as the beginning of modern nation-building. Ranade criticised earlier British portrayals of Shivaji's state as "a freebooting Power, which thrived by plunder and adventure, and succeeded only because it was the most cunning and adventurous ... This is a very common feeling with the readers, who derive their knowledge of these events solely from the works of English historians."

In 1919, Sarkar published the seminal Shivaji and His Times, hailed as the most authoritative biography of the king since James Grant Duff's 1826 A History of the Mahrattas. Sarkar was able to read primary sources in Persian, Marathi, and Arabic, but was challenged for his criticism of the "chauvinism" of Marathi historians' views of Shivaji.Likewise, although supporters cheered his depiction of the killing of Afzal Khan as justified, they decried Sarkar's terming as "murder" the killing of the Hindu raja Chandrao More and his clan.

In 1937, Dennis Kincaid, a British civil servant in India, published The Grand Rebel.[203] This book portrays Shivaji as a heroic rebel and a master strategist fighting a much larger Mughal army.

Chauth and Sardeshmukhi

Chauth and Sardeshmukhi were two types of taxes collected in South India, particularly Maratha Empire during medieval times. These two taxes became important sources of revenue for Maratha administration. However, Chauth and Sardeshmukhi were neither introduced by Marathas nor were original sources of revenue for them.

Background

In 1664 and 1670, Shivaji had organized two plundering raids on Surat, which was a part of Mughal territory. These plunders led to origin of an unconventional source of revenue called “Mulkgiri†for Marathas. Mulkgiri is an Arabic term made from Mulk (country) and griftan (take), signifying a plundering raid on foreign lands. The examples of Mulkgiri were first set in India by Muslim invaders such as Muhammad bin Qasim, Mahmud Ghazni, Muhammad Ghori, Alauddin Khalji etc. For Marathas, this was the raid money from non-Maratha lands.

Shivaji was fully conscious that this practice of plunder was not suitable for his statecraft. In due course, he substituted these with two customary taxes called Chauth and Sardeshmukhi. However, Shivaji had not introduced these taxes also. The rulers of Deccan were already familiar with these terms well before Shivaji. In fact, Portuguese had also paid these taxes to the neighbouring kings of their territories to avoid conflicts with them.

Chauth and Sardeshmukhi under Shivaji

He had raided from Surat to Madras and had divided the entire area into two parts. The area within his own “Swarajya” or “Mulk-i-Qadim†was the area that belonged to the Marathas. The outside area whenever plundered was to be levied the two taxes.  Shivaji had demanded these taxes from hostile Muslim rulers of Deccan for the first time in 1665 and by 1667; he was strong enough to get his demands fulfilled. The states of Bijapur and Golconda had agreed to pay Rs. 3 Lakh and Rs. 5 Lakh respectively per annum to avoid Maratha incursions.

Chauth was comprised of 1/4 of the revenue assessment paid as a fee for non-molestation. Sardeshmukhi was an additional levy of 10% of revenue which Shivaji claimed on being the Sardeshmukh (overlord). Shivaji was highly successful in mobilizing the resources using these two taxes. The revenue was assessed as per the Mughal revenue or the Deccan kingdoms revenue.

Chauth and Sardeshmukhi under Later Marathas

In February 1719, the Mughal emperor Rafi-ud-Darajat had assigned the Chauth and Sardeshmukhi rights over the six Mughal subas of the Deccan to Raja Shahu. In return of Chauth, Raja Sahu would maintain a contingent of 15,000 Maratha soldiers for the service and protection of the emperor. In return for Sardeshmukhi, Marathas were made responsible for the maintenance of peace and order in these subas by preventing robbery and rebellions.

Now let's take a look at some of the forts that were very important to Shivaji "Shivaji Maharaj was attributed to have had a control of almost 360 forts in his reign..."

Shivaji Maharaj, Maharashtra’s greatest warrior king known for his excellent military and guerilla warfare, is often cited as Maharashtra’s pride. His well-executed administration along with strategic planning, led him to a road of victories. He was the pioneer of building India’s first-ever navy to protect Maharashtra’s coast. Adulated for his tactical governance, disciplined military, kindness and high respect for women, Shivaji Maharaj was attributed to have had a control of almost 360 forts in his reign in Marathwada.

As you meander through the Western Ghats and the Konkan Coast, you will see mountains crowned with fortifications and beautiful fortresses floating over the Arabian Sea. Most of them lay neglected and unattended. Pledge to take care of these forts as they are all Maharashtra’s pride. Jai Jai Maharashtra Majha, Garja Maharashtra Majha.

Now...

1. Torna

The first feather on his royal crown, Torna was Shivaji’s premiere conquest at the young age of 16. Having rechristened it to Prachandgad, Shivaji Maharaj constructed monuments on its massive spread.

2. Sinhagad

After scaling a steep cliff and fighting a brutal battle against the Mughals, Tanaji Malusare lost his life. His brother took charge and won over the fort. Grieving this loss, Shivaji Maharaj remorsefully said, “Gad aala, pan Sinha gela” – We won the fort, but lost the lion. This explains the name and its importance in the pages of Maratha history.

3. Raigad

An epoch-making fort in the history of Maharashtra, Raigad was the capital of the Maratha Empire. It was here that the royal coronation of Shivaji Maharaj as the official king of the Maratha Empire took place. Although the fort was purloined and wrecked by the Britishers in 1818, much of its glory still remains. Shivaji Maharaj breathed his last in this fort.

4. Shivneri

A 17th century fort, Shivneri is the birthplace of Shivaji Maharaj. The fort carries small temple of Goddess Shivai Devi after whom he was named.

5. Vijaydurg

A beautiful and an impregnable sea fort, Vijaydurg is considered one of Shivaji’s best victories. Used as an anchor for Maratha warships, Vijaydurg is encircled by the Waghotan creek.

A beautiful and an impregnable sea fort, Vijaydurg is considered one of Shivaji’s best victories. Used as an anchor for Maratha warships, Vijaydurg is encircled by the Waghotan creek.

6. Sindhudurg

Once a powerful naval base for the Maratha Kingdom, this sea fort now remains a beautiful history. It impregnates the only temple dedicated to Shivaji Maharaj and also preserves his footprints. It is a popular tourist destination and ferries are available to reach this place.

7. Rajgad

The erstwhile capital of the Maratha Empire, Shivaji Maharaj made many commandments and led history-defining moments from here. He spent almost 26 years of his life here. The fort has seen many epoch-making events like the burial of Afzal Khan's head, the birth of Shivaji's son Rajaram, the death of Shivaji's Queen Saibai, and the return of Shivaji from Agra.

8. Pratapgad

Pratapgad is famous for the encounter between Shivaji and the mighty Afzal Khan. It was here that Shivaji’s true reign began after he defeated Afzal Khan, making this fort one of the most important events in the Maratha history.

9. Lohagad

Having conquered this fort twice by Shivaji Maharaj, Lohagad held its prime importance due to its strategic location. The trade route to Khandala was guarded against here.

Coronation of Shivaji:

Shivaji had acquired extensive lands and wealth through his campaigns, but lacking a formal title, he was still technically a Mughal zamindar or the son of a Bijapuri jagirdar, with no legal basis to rule his de facto domain. A kingly title could address this and also prevent any challenges by other Maratha leaders, who were his equals.Such a title would also provide the Hindu Marathas with a fellow Hindu sovereign in a region otherwise ruled by Muslims.

The preparation for a proposed coronation began in 1673. However, some controversies delayed the coronation by almost a year. One controversy erupted amongst the Brahmins of Shivaji's court: they refused to crown Shivaji as a king because that status was reserved for those of the kshatriya (warrior) varna in Hindu society. Shivaji was descended from a line of headmen of farming villages, and the Brahmins accordingly categorised him as being of the vaishya (farmer) varna.They noted that Shivaji had never had a sacred thread ceremony, and did not wear the thread, such as a kshatriya would. Shivaji summoned Gaga Bhatt, a pandit of Varanasi, who stated

that he had found a genealogy proving that Shivaji was descended from the Sisodias, and thus indeed a kshatriya, albeit one in need of the ceremonies befitting his rank. To enforce this status, Shivaji was given a sacred thread ceremony, and remarried his spouses under the Vedic rites expected of a kshatriya.However, according to historical evidence, Shivaji's claim to Rajput, and specifically of Sisodial ancestry, may be seen as being anything from tenuous, at best, to purely inventive.

On 28 May, Shivaji did penance for his and his ancestors' not observing Kshatriya rites for so long. Then he was invested by Gaga Bhatt with the sacred thread. On the insistence of other Brahmins, Gaga Bhatt omitted the Vedic chant and initiated Shivaji into a modified form of the life of the twice-born, instead of putting him on a par with the Brahmins. Next day, Shivaji made atonement for the sins, deliberate or accidental, committed in his own lifetime. He was weighed separately against seven metals including gold, silver, and several other articles, such fine linen, camphor, salt, sugar etc. All these articles, along with a lakh of hun, were distributed among the Brahmins. But even this failed to satisfy the greed of the Brahmins. Two of the learned Brahmins pointed out that Shivaji, while conducting his raids, had killed Brahmins, cows, women,

and children. He could be cleansed of these sins for a price of Rs. 8,000, which Shivaji paid. The total expenditure for feeding the assemblage, general almsgiving, throne, and ornaments approached 1.5 million Rupees.

On 6 June 1674, Shivaji was crowned king of the Maratha Empire (Hindavi Swaraj) in a lavish ceremony at Raigad fort. In the Hindu calendar it was the 13th day (trayodashi) of the first fortnight of the month of Jyeshtha in the year 1596.Gaga Bhatt officiated, pouring water from a gold vessel filled with the waters of the seven sacred rivers—Yamuna, Indus, Ganges, Godavari, Narmada, Krishna, and Kaveri—over Shivaji's head, and chanted the Vedic coronation mantras. After the ablution, Shivaji bowed before his mother, Jijabai, and touched her feet. Nearly fifty thousand people gathered at Raigad for the ceremonies.Shivaji was entitled Shakakarta ("founder of an era") and Chhatrapati ("sovereign"). He also took the title of Haindava Dharmodhhaarak (protector of the Hindu faith) and Kshatriya Kulavantas:Kshatriya being the varna of Hinduism and kulavantas meaning the 'head of the kula, or race'.

Shivaji's mother died on 18 June 1674. The Marathas summoned Nischal Puri Goswami, a tantric priest, who declared that the original coronation had been held under inauspicious stars, and a second coronation was needed. This second coronation, on 24 September 1674, mollified those who still believed that Shivaji was not qualified for the Vedic rites of his first coronation, by being a less controversial ceremony.

Conquest in southern India:

Beginning in 1674, the Marathas undertook an aggressive campaign, raiding Khandesh (October), capturing Bijapuri Ponda (April 1675),Karwar (mid-year), and Kolhapur (July).In November the Maratha navy skirmished with the Siddis of Janjira, and in early 1676 Peshwa Pingale, en route to Surat, engaged the Raja of Ramnagar in battle. Shivaji raided Athani in March 1676, and by year’s end besieged Belgaum and Vayem Rayim in modern-day northern Karnataka. At the end of 1676, Shivaji launched a wave of conquests in southern India, with a massive force of 30,000 cavalry and 20,000 infantry.

He captured the Adilshahi forts at Vellore and Gingee, in modern-day Tamil Nadu. In the run-up to this expedition Shivaji appealed to a sense of Deccani patriotism, that the “Deccan” or Southern India was a homeland that should be protected from outsiders., His appeal was somewhat successful and he entered into a treaty with the Qutubshah of the Golconda sultanate that covered the eastern Deccan. Shivají’s conquests in the south proved quite crucial during future wars; Gingee served as Maratha capital for nine years during the Maratha War of Independence.

Shivaji intended to reconcile with his half-brother Venkoji (Ekoji I), Shahaji’s son by his second wife, Tukabai (née Mohite), who ruled Thanjavur (Tanjore) after Shahaji. The initially promising negotiations were unsuccessful, so whilst returning to Raigad Shivaji defeated his half-brother’s army on 26 November 1677 and seized most of his possessions in the Mysore plateau. Venkoji’s wife Dipa Bai, whom Shivaji deeply respected, took up new negotiations with Shivaji, and also convinced her husband to distance himself from Muslim advisors. In the end Shivaji consented to turn over to her and her female descendants many of the properties he had seized, with Venkoji consenting to a number of conditions for the proper administration of the territories and maintenance of Shivaji’s future Memorial (Samadhi).

According to V.Sriram, he published his research in "THE HINDU" news papers an artical was "Did Chatrapati Shivaji slip into Madras incognito to offer prayers at a local temple in 1677? Historical records and local legend have different tales to tell…"

"The city of Madras was just 38 years old in 1677 when it faced one of the greatest challenges to its survival — an invasion by Chatrapati Shivaji no less. Details of the danger that loomed over the city are given in J. Talboys Wheeler's book, Madras in the Olden Time, published by Higginbothams in 1882 and it makes for an interesting tale.

The Great Maratha or the Mountain Rat, depending on whose point of view you took, his followers' or Aurangzeb's, was no stranger to the English, having twice attempted to lay waste the rich town of Surat where the East India Company had a factory. On both occasions, the first in 1664 and the second in 1670, Shivaji had plundered Surat but had not been able to penetrate the defences of the English in their factory. During the second attack a valiant resistance was put up in particular by Streynsham Master, a member of the Council at the factory. In 1665 Streynsham Master was asked to succeed Sir William Langhorne, Governor of Madras, as and when the latter's term ended. By 1667 Sir William had gone and Master had taken his place. Almost the first issue he had to deal with was Shivaji's visit.

Shivaji's progress through the neighbouring country — he was on his way to capture Vellore and Gingee — was followed by the English in Fort St. George and the natives in the small town of Madras with considerable nervousness. Their apprehension was not in any way lessened by the tales that Master could relate of Shivaji's prowess in battle. Consequently, on May 9, 1677, a resolution was passed by the Council to strengthen the defences of the city. As everyone waited with bated breath, Shivaji came close to the city and on May 14 sent a Brahmin and two others with a message asking the Council at Fort St. George for some “cordial stones and counter poisons”. He offered to pay for these. Deciding that it would be best not to press payment for “such trifles” the English sent what he wanted along with “such fruit as their gardens could afford” through a messenger. In addition, they also propitiated the Brahmin through gifts of three yards of broadcloth and some sandalwood. The thrifty English, however, noted mournfully in some detail that the total cost of the gifts came to 60 pagodas, for which, of course, no compensation could be asked.

A few days later the messenger was back, with a demand for more cordials and counter poisons and an offer to pay for the second consignment. The demands were complied with once more, the suggestion of payment being brushed aside again. A third demand soon came, this time for some English engineers. This was felt to be asking for too much and the Council politely declined to send any. Having done this, they braced themselves for an invasion but nothing happened. Shivaji had moved on. Having conquered Gingee and Vellore, he reappeared in the vicinity in 1678 and by August of that year his brother was camping near Kanchipuram with an army that was 1,500 strong. It was rumoured in Golconda and faithfully relayed to the English in Madras that Shivaji had given orders to his army to advance, conquer the fort at Poonamallee and then lay waste “Sadraspatam, Madraspatanam and Pulicat”. Once again there was an alert of an imminent attack but Madras was fortunate enough to escape. Shivaji abruptly decided to march on and after “some terrible engagements” with the Naik of Mysore went back to his own kingdom.

Shrouded in mystery

Wheeler's record has it that Shivaji never came to Madras proper and passed by its outskirts. Or did he? Local tradition has it that one night, unknown to anyone, the Great Maratha slipped into the city. It was entirely in keeping with his nature and his shrewd desire to assess enemy preparedness for war. It is said that he came and offered worship at the temple of Kalikambal on Thambu Chetty Street. It is a well-known fact that Shivaji was a worshipper of the Goddess Bhavani and perhaps he had a sudden urge to offer prayers at a shrine dedicated to the Goddess.

A portrait of Shivaji on horseback hangs at the temple even now and below it a board that commemorates the visit. It gives the date of the visit as October 16, 1677. Master was to remain Governor of Madras for four more years and fortunately did not have to face any further challenges of a similar nature. He is remembered more today for building the St. Mary's Church inside Fort St. George and the establishment of a High Court of Judicature. But if Shivaji had sacked Madras, would we not all be Marathi Manoos?"

Sambhaji, Shivaji's elder son who succeeded him...

The question of Shivaji's heir-apparent was complicated. Shivaji confined his son to Panhala in 1678, only to have the prince escape with his wife and defect to the Mughals for a year. Sambhaji then returned home, unrepentant, and was again confined to Panhala.

Shivaji died around 3–5 April 1680 at the age of 50, on the eve of Hanuman Jayanti. The cause of Shivaji's death is disputed. British records states that Shivaji died of bloody flux, after being sick for 12 days. In a contemporary work in Portuguese, in the Biblioteca Nacional de Lisboa, the recorded cause of death of Shivaji is anthrax. However, Krishnaji Anant Sabhasad, author of Sabhasad Bakhar, a biography of Shivaji has mentioned fever as the cause of death. Putalabai, the childless eldest of the surviving wives of Shivaji committed sati by jumping into his funeral pyre. Another surviving spouse, Sakwarbai, was not allowed to follow suit because she had a young daughter.There were also allegations, though doubted by later scholars, that his second wife Soyarabai had poisoned him in order to put her 10-year-old son Rajaram on the throne.

After Shivaji's death, Soyarabai made plans, with various ministers, to crown her son Rajaram rather than her stepson Sambhaji. On 21 April 1680, ten-year-old Rajaram was installed on the throne. However, Sambhaji took possession of Raigad Fort after killing the commander, and on 18 June acquired control of Raigad, and formally ascended the throne on 20 July.Rajaram, his mother Soyarabai and wife Janki Bai were imprisoned, and Soyrabai was executed on charges of conspiracy that October.

In 1681, soon after Shivaji's death, Aurangzeb launched an offensive in the South, to capture territories held by the Marathas, the Adil Shahi of Bijapur, and Qutb Shahi of Golconda. He was successful in obliterating the Adil Shahi and Qutb Shahi dynasties, but could not subdue the Marathas. Better known as the Mughal–Maratha Wars, this campaign nominally increased the size of Mughal Empire, but ended in a strategic defeat and had a ruinous effect on Mughal Empire. Aurangzeb spent 27 years in Deccan, but ultimately failed to achieve his objective of conquering the Marathas, while, draining the Mughal Treasury, and almost irreparably damaging the strength and morale of the Mughal army. According to contemporary sources, about 2.5 million of Aurangzeb's army were killed during the Mughal–Maratha Wars (100,000 annually over a quarter-century), while 2 million civilians in war-torn lands died due to drought, plague, and famine. The conflict ended in a defeat for the Mughals in 1707.

This period saw the capture, torture, and execution of Sambhaji in 1689, and the Marathas offering strong resistance under the leadership of Sambhaji's successor, Rajaram, and then Rajaram's widow Tarabai. Territories changed hands repeatedly between the Mughals and the Marathas.

Shahu, a grandson of Shivaji and son of Sambhaji, was kept prisoner by Aurangzeb during the 27-year conflict. After the latter's death, his successor released Shahu. After a brief power struggle with his aunt Tarabai over the succession, Shahu ruled the Maratha Empire from 1707 to 1749. Early in his reign, he appointed Balaji Vishwanath, and later his descendants, as Peshwas (prime ministers) of the Maratha Empire. The empire expanded greatly under the leadership of Balaji's son, Peshwa Bajirao I and grandson Peshwa Balaji Bajirao.

In a bid to effectively manage the large empire, Shahu and the Peshwas gave semi-autonomy to the strongest of the knights, Gaekwads of Baroda, the Holkars of Indore and Malwa, the Scindias of Gwalior, and Bhonsales of Nagpur, thus creating the Maratha Confederacy.

A DETAILED ANALYSIS OF HIS PERSONALITY

As the following, we will delve into the personality traits that shaped Shivaji Maharaj's character and made him an iconic figure in Indian history.

Leadership and Vision:

Shivaji Maharaj was a born leader who possessed a clear vision for his kingdom. From a young age, he displayed exceptional leadership qualities, demonstrating his ability to rally his people and unite them under a common cause. He envisioned a sovereign Maratha kingdom, free from foreign domination, and worked relentlessly to achieve this goal. His ability to inspire loyalty and trust among his followers was instrumental in establishing an effective administration and a formidable military force.

Courage and Resilience:

Shivaji Maharaj's unwavering courage and resilience were instrumental in his triumphs on the battlefield and in the face of numerous challenges. He fearlessly confronted adversaries and never shied away from taking risks. His audacious expeditions, such as the audacious raid on Shaista Khan's palace, demonstrated his indomitable spirit. Shivaji Maharaj's ability to bounce back from setbacks, such as the temporary loss of forts, showcased his resilience and determination to fulfill his mission.

Military Genius:

Shivaji Maharaj was a military genius who employed innovative strategies and tactics in warfare. He recognized the importance of guerrilla warfare and utilized it effectively against the superior forces of the Mughal Empire. Shivaji Maharaj emphasized the importance of naval power, leading to the creation of a strong navy that controlled key coastal areas. His military acumen, combined with his meticulous planning and disciplined troops, allowed him to win several crucial battles and expand his kingdom.

Administrative Skills:

In addition to his military prowess, Shivaji Maharaj was an astute administrator. He laid the foundation of a well-organized administrative system that ensured efficient governance. He established a council of ministers known as the Ashta Pradhan (Eight Ministers), each responsible for a specific department. This system promoted decentralization of power, enabling effective administration at the grassroots level. Shivaji Maharaj also implemented policies to promote agriculture, trade, and infrastructure development, which contributed to the overall prosperity of his kingdom.

Strategic Alliances and Diplomacy:

While Shivaji Maharaj was a formidable warrior, he also recognized the importance of diplomacy and forging strategic alliances. He skillfully navigated complex political landscapes, establishing diplomatic relations with regional powers, including the Mughals, the English, and the Portuguese. Through calculated alliances, Shivaji Maharaj successfully expanded his influence and ensured the stability and security of his kingdom. His diplomatic acumen enabled him to negotiate favorable treaties and secure significant concessions for the Maratha Empire.

Social Reforms and Welfare:

Shivaji Maharaj was not only a conqueror but also a benevolent ruler who prioritized the welfare of his subjects. He introduced several social reforms aimed at improving the lives of his people. Shivaji Maharaj abolished unfair taxes, promoted trade and commerce, and implemented policies that protected the rights of women and marginalized communities. He established a robust system of justice, ensuring equitable treatment for all, regardless of their social status.

Devotion and Religious Tolerance:

Shivaji Maharaj was deeply religious and had a strong sense of devotion. He was an ardent follower of the Hindu deity Lord Shiva and Goddess Durga, held high respect for other religions as well. Shivaji Maharaj practiced religious tolerance and ensured that his subjects were free to follow their own faiths without discrimination. His respect for religious diversity and the protection of temples, mosques, and churches within his kingdom endeared him to people of different faiths.

Empowerment of Women:

Shivaji Maharaj demonstrated a progressive outlook by empowering women and granting them positions of authority. He encouraged their education, training, and active participation in various spheres of governance. The appointment of a female military commander, Jijabai, and the establishment of women's military units (Durga Pathaks) were remarkable initiatives that challenged traditional gender norms and paved the way for gender equality.

Cultural Patronage:

Shivaji Maharaj was a patron of art, culture, and literature. He encouraged the development of Marathi language and literature, promoting the use of the vernacular in administrative affairs. Shivaji Maharaj also supported artists, musicians, and scholars, recognizing their contribution to the enrichment of society. His patronage of cultural activities helped foster a sense of pride among his subjects and contributed to the preservation of Marathi heritage.

Ethical Values and Integrity:

Integrity and ethical values were the hallmarks of Shivaji Maharaj's personality. He upheld a strict code of conduct known as "Hindavi Swarajya," emphasizing ethical governance and the welfare of his subjects. Shivaji Maharaj believed in the importance of truthfulness, honesty, and justice. He set high standards for himself and expected the same from his officials. His commitment to moral principles earned him the trust and respect of his people, who saw him as a just and righteous ruler.

CONCLUSION:

The personality of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj was a harmonious blend of leadership, military genius, administrative skills, devotion, religious tolerance, social welfare, ethical values, cultural patronage, and strategic vision. His multifaceted persona, characterized by integrity, compassion, and a relentless pursuit of justice, continues to inspire generations. Shivaji Maharaj’s legacy is deeply rooted in the hearts of Indians and stands as a testament to the power of vision, courage, and perseverance, making him a heroic figure in Indian history and a symbol of valor and independence. Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj’s life and achievements continue to be celebrated and studied, making him one of the most remarkable figures in Indian history and a source of inspiration for generations to come.

Controversy

Shivaji very well understood the spirit of tolerance of Hinduism and practiced it in his life. He was the protector of the Hindus, the Brahmanas and the cows. He tolerated every religion and showed respect to religious texts or god of other faith. He was very much tolerant towards Islam and during his military campaign he did not destroy a single mosque, always protected the Muslim ladies and children. He granted lands and annuities to Muslim shrines.

Thus Shivaji was a great organiser, conqueror and an administrator. By dint of his courage, determination, and bravery he rose to the position of a jagirdar to that of a powerful king. He possessed creative genius of a high order. He evolved order out of chaos and had welded the scattered Maratha race into a nation and led them to heights of glory which they had never dreamt before. He gave the Marathas peace and order. Dr. Iswari Prasad writes, “It was the strength and vigour he imparted to the political and social system of the Marathas that defied Aurangzeb’s might even after his death.”

He maintained a high standard of morality in his private life and was free from the prevailing vices of the age. Though he was illiterate yet very easily could understand the most complicated problems. He had excelled in diplomacy and state craft. He championed the cause of Hinduism and his eagerness to defend it from the Muslim aggression won him sympathy from the Hindus all over the country. But he was tolerant to other religions.

Mr. Rawlison writes, “He was never deliberately or wantonly cruel. To respect women, mosques and non-combatants, to stop promiscuous slaughter after a battle, to release and dismiss with honour captured men and officers. These are surely no light virtues”. Thus the kingdom of Sivaji was well administered by him. The contribution of Sivaji to the rise of Maratha power is un-parallel in history and his successors tried to strengthen the Maratha power according to their capability.

The historical Shivaji lived in a Persianate world in which Muslims were rulers and, as US academic James Laine tells us, “commanded a certain obedience and respect”. Shivaji’s mother Jijabai’s family were allies of the Mughals. His father Bijapur general Shahaji Bhosale also served the Mughals at one point. In 1648, when Shahaji was arrested by the Adil Shahi state for insubordination and imprisoned, his son turned to Mughal emperor Shah Jahan. For this, Shivaji even offered to accept Mughal service though that did not happen as two Muslim noblemen from Bijapur interceded on Shahaji’s behalf and got him freed.

The earliest known ballad in Marathi, Afzal Khan Vadh (The Killing of Afzal Khan), written in a heavily Persianised language in 1659, makes Shivaji appear as someone who is at ease with the Persianate system,

sending his salaam to his father as well as Lord Shiva and goddess Bhavani. Shivaji is lionised, quite literally, with the Persian honorific Sarja or “the lion”, Laine informs in his book, Shivaji: Hindu King in Islamic India.

Professor Ali Nadeem Rezavi, former chairman of the history department of Aligarh Muslim University, says this ahistorical positioning of Shivaji was made during the 19th century. “The image of Shivaji as the Hindu saviour who tried to throw out the foreign Mughals was created by certain leaders of the Congress in Maharashtra during the Freedom Struggle to drive home the point that the British were foreigners too who needed to be thrown out just like Shivaji did. The policy of divide and rule of the colonial state further strengthened it. Gradually, by the 20th century, Shivaji in popular mythology emerged as a Hindu king,” Rezavi says.

Even when Shivaji declared himself a sovereign and took the title of Chhatrapati – a title also used for Emperor Akbar in ‘Hindu’ sources – and replaced many Persian terms of administration with Sanskrit, the idiom of his kingship was still Islamic in many ways. His court biographers called him both Raja and Badshah.

Professor Anirudh Deshpande of Delhi University, who wrote the introduction of the English translation of the late Govind Pansare’s book ‘Who Was Shivaji?’, says the Maratha king was “more in sync with political and cultural practices of the Deccan Sultanates like the Adil Shahi and Nizam Shahi states”. “And these practices were syncretic in nature. In fact, the northern Mughals themselves were outsiders in the Deccan and the Deccan Sultanates resisted their encroachment on the area. So, what we actually have is a varied picture of Deccan politics in the 17th century.”

Indeed, the Mughal-Maratha rivalry was a rivalry of the core and periphery: the Mughal hegemony was opposed not by a Hindu kingdom, but by the Deccan region which had Muslims and Hindus both.

“Impartial research on Shivaji has shown that the Maratha leader might have had regional aspirations but never communal. He did have his rivalries with Bijapur and Golconda, but he was one with them when it came to the Mughals. Mughals too understood this,” Rezavi says.

Deshpande points out that Shivaji’s ancestors were military commanders and jagirdars of the Nizam Shahi and Adil Shahi sultanates. “They worshipped Hindu saints and Sufi pirs simultaneously, a practice carried forward by Shivaji.” Shivaji’s father Shahaji was named after Sufi saint Shah Sharif.

The Maratha ruler tried several times to get recognition from the Mughals. “Shivaji certainly wanted recognition and a substantial mansab from the Mughal Badshah and that is what led to his brief sojourn in Agra after he submitted to Mirza Raja Jai Singh at Purandar in 1665. Becoming a big mansabdar with claims to a large jagir in the Deccan would have strengthened his position vis-a-vis the Sultanates,” Deshpande explains.

Even after Shivaji escaped from Agra, he continued to write to the emperor. As a result of these overtures, Aurangzeb recognised Shivaji as ‘Raja’ and accepted his son Sambhaji into Mughal service with a mansab of 5,000. All this was before he became the sovereign. “Long after Shivaji died, the Marathas in the 18th century continued to seek and operate under a political legitimacy sought from Delhi,” Deshpande says. Bengal was not spared from the Maratha attack. Marathas invaded Bengal again and again. From 1744 Peshwa and Raghuji Bhosle invaded Bengal until 1751. According to Sir K.K.Dutta ," The Maratha incurisions were perhaps the most calamitous events in the history of Bengal during the first half of eighteenth Century. "

India has witnessed rise and fall of many formidable empires in history. One such great empire was the Maratha Empire. It was founded by the most honored nationalist Hindu warrior king Shivaji Bhonsle aka Chhatrapati Shivaji.

The story of Shivaji and the advent of the Maratha Empire dates back to 1674.

Shivaji, an Indian warrior king, led a rebellion against the most powerful Mughals and succeeded in establishing an independent Maratha kingdom. The kingdom later expanded and covered many parts of South Asia.

Bargis:

To manage such a large Empire, a massive army and a number of Maratha Generals were appointed. Under the rule of one such General Raghoji Bhonsle, Bengal was invaded and raided. He was the Maratha General of Nagpur. Maratha horsemen commonly called as the ‘Bargis’ invaded and raided western Bengal.

The Bargis were the lowest clans of Maratha common soldiers. They were the ones who invaded, raided and plundered villages in western Bengal.

Bengal was invaded six times from August 1741 to May 1751 by the Marathas. This caused great destruction and severe loss of life and wealth. Often in the dead of night, Bargis used to come on their horses with spears and swords. They used to burn down villages and markets.

The then Nawab of Bengal, Alivardi Khan, succeeded in defending his kingdom against all the raids. However, the havoc that the Bargis wrecked on the Bengal Subah was unendurable. It consisted of Bihar, Odisha, and part of Bangladesh. Consequently, he had to give up Odisha, a major part of his kingdom.

The invasions and the massacres ceased only after the Nawab signed a peace treaty with the Marathas. He agreed to establish a Maratha-supported governor in Odisha, under ostensible control of the Nawab. However, he had to pay ‘Chauth’ i.e. a Chauthai (1/4th). It was a regular tax to the Marathas until the British came and occupied Bengal.

Source

The repeated raids not only devastated Bengal economically but also left an indelible mark in the hearts of people. The psychological damage and the miserable condition of people of Bengal at that time reflects in some of the contemporary Bengali writings.

There is a lullaby in Bengali which goes like,

“Khoka ghumalo, pada judalo bargi elo deshe

It roughly translates to

“When the children fall asleep, silence sets in, the Bargis come to our lands...

This speaks volumes about the Maratha atrocities in Bengal.

But how come the Marathas, supposedly nationalist, Hindu saviors turned into bloodthirsty savages after Shivaji?

Chhatrapati Shivaji was perhaps the only ruler in Indian History who did not fight for a kingdom. He fought for a greater cause. He was the protector of the Dharma. The king who vowed to uproot the oppressive Mughal rule from Maharashtra.

So, what were the possible reasons for the same?

Expansion and Riches are the two reasons one could speculate, behind these invasions. These reasons seem valid enough on a superficial level.

However, there was a third political angle to this story.

The Bargis who invaded Bengal under Commander Bhaskar Pandit and Maratha General Raghoji Bhonsle were Marathas. However, they were not only Marathas.

As the Maratha Empire expanded, its authority got decentralized and got distributed among various Peshwas and Maratha Generals.

It all started when Mir Habib, a former courtier of the Nawab of Bengal, Alivardi Khan defected to the Marathas. He came to Nagpur and urged Bhaskar Pandit to march and invade Bengal. As a result, on the day of Dussehra in 1741, Bhaskar Pandit invaded Bengal. He defeated the forces of Alivardi Khan. Consequently, it was followed by another attack the very next year. And the Nawab sought the help of Maratha Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao.

Moreover, the Maratha Peshwas did fight against the Maratha Commander Bhaskar Pandit and Maratha General Raghoji Bhonsale. They fought for Alivardi Khan in exchange for his loyalty and Chauth to Shahu Bhonsle. Sahu was the grandson of Shivaji and the fifth Chhatrapati of the Maratha Empire.

These measures, however, did not prove themselves useful in the long run. As soon as the differences between the Peshwa and Raghoji settled, Bengal again became the target of Maratha Invasions.

For a decade Bengal remained the biggest cash cow for the Maratha General. This is because of its affluence and geographical significance.

However, Maratha army of some Maratha Generals worked more like a feudal money-oriented force after Chhatrapati Shivaji and his son Sambhaji. Goals changed with time and the Maratha Army after Shivaji started to focus more on expansion than national unity.

Chhatrapati Shivaji was perhaps the only ruler in Indian History who did not fight for a kingdom. He fought for a greater cause. He was the protector of the Dharma. The king who vowed to uproot the oppressive Mughal rule from Maharashtra.

Chattrapati Shivaji Maharaj was the epitome of willpower and leadership. He got the title of “Chhatrapati”, which means the “Sovereign” of the Maratha kingdom. He saved the Marathas from the invasion of the Mughals in 1674. He protected the kingdom by building groups of forts and highly-advanced marine security for the states near the shore. Chatrapati Shivaji Maharaj created a stable empire under himself with some cooperation from brave families(deshmukhs).

Poona was the capital city of the Maratha kingdom. The Maratha Empire dominated a large part of the Indian subcontinent in the 17th century.

The empire formally existed from 1674 with the coronation of Chattrapati Shivaji Maharaj and ended in 1818 with the defeat of Peshwa Bajirao II at the hands of the British East India Company.

Maratha After Shivaji:

The Maratha Empire, also referred to as the Maratha Confederacy, was an early modern Indian empire and later a confederation that controlled large portions of the Indian subcontinent in the 18th century. Maratha rule formally began in 1674 with the coronation of Shivaji of the Bhonsle dynasty as the Chhatrapati. Although Shivaji came from the Maratha caste, the Maratha empire also included warriors, administrators, and other nobles from the Maratha and several other castes from what is known today as Maharashtra.

Maratha confederacy, alliance formed in the 18th century after Mughal pressure forced the collapse of Shivaji’s kingdom of Maharashtra in western India. After the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb’s death (1707), Maratha power revived under Shivaji’s grandson Shahu. He confided power to the Brahman Bhat family, who became hereditary peshwas (chief ministers). He also decided to expand northward with armies under the peshwas’ control. In Shahu’s later years, the power of the peshwas increased. After his death (1749) they became the effective rulers. The leading Maratha families—Sindhia, Holkar, Bhonsle, and Gaekwar—extended their conquests in northern and central India and became more independent and difficult to control.

Effective control of the peshwas ended with the great defeat of Panipat (1761) at the hands of the Afghans and the death of the young peshwa Madhav Rao I in 1772. Thereafter the Maratha state was a confederacy of five chiefs under the nominal leadership of the peshwa at Poona (now Pune) in western India. Though they united on occasion, as against the British (1775–82), more often they quarreled. After he was defeated by the Holkar dynasty in 1802, the peshwa Baji Rao II sought protection from the British, whose intervention destroyed the confederacy by 1818. The confederacy expressed a general Maratha nationalist sentiment but was divided bitterly by the jealousies of its chiefs.

Shivaji's power and polity spread far beyond his swarajya into North India under the brilliant peshwas, whose office was invested with tremendous authority and made hereditary by Shivaji's grandson, Shahu. The Peshwai period refers to the period of Maratha power expansion under successive peshwas, with Pune serving as the seat of their power for nearly a century (1713–1818). There were two major political "arrangements" that aided the expansion of the Maratha polity, which wielded enormous authority over the ruins of the rapidly fading Mughal empire.

The Peshwas - Background

• The peshwas encouraged and supported some of their sirdars, most notably the Shindes of Gwalior, the Holkars of Indore, the Gaikwads of Baroda, and the Bhosles of Nagpur, to establish and maintain their own extensive semi autonomous fiefdoms, forming a pentarchy under the overall control of the peshwas.
• The second "arrangement" took place in Satara between the peshwas and the chhatrapatis, or kings of Shivajis' line: Shahu and his successors.
• It was similar to the hereditary shogun's position in Japan, with separate capitals for the Maratha king and the peshwa, with the latter receiving the robes of investiture from the king.
• Although the peshwas lived in Pune like kings, with most of the royal accoutrements, they showed their respect for their royal masters when they visited Satara.
• Before entering the capital, the peshwa halted his troops' marching strains, dismounted from his elephant, and walked to the chhatrapati's palace, where he sat on an ordinary low baithak (seat) in his presence.
• All titles, honours, and lands were granted to sirdars on the recommendation of the peshwa but with the knowledge and seal of the Chhatrapati.
• All treaties and important documents were personally explained to the chhatrapati by the peshwa before the latter's seal was affixed to make them final and legal documents.

According to Surendra Nath Sen sir "The Peshwas were the heroes of the Maratha empire, but not the emperors...........The Maratha Chhatrapati was in effect a vassal prisoner of his subordinate Peshwas, and nominally a vassal of the Mughal Emperor."

Balaji Vishwanath (1713-1720)

• Balaji Vishwanath Bhat (1662–1720) was the first of a line of hereditary Peshwas from the Bhat family who seized control of the Maratha Empire in the 18th century.
• Balaji Viswanath began his career as a small revenue official before ascending to the position of Peshwa in 1713.
• He made his position as Peshwa the most important and powerful, as well as hereditary. He played an important role in the civil war, ultimately establishing Shahu as the Maratha ruler.
• He sought support for Shahu from all Maratha leaders. Balaji Viswanath received certain rights from the then-Mughal emperor, Farukh Siyar, in 1719.
• First, the Mughal emperor acknowledged Shahu as Maratha king. Second, he permitted Shahu to collect Chauth and Sardeshmukhi from the six Mughal Deccan provinces, including Carnatic and Mysore.

Baji Rao I (1720-1740)

• Baji Rao was Balaji Viswanath's eldest son. At the tender age of twenty, he succeeded his father as Peshwa.
• He was the pinnacle of Maratha power. He established a system of confederacy among the Maratha chiefs.
• Under this system, each Maratha chief was assigned a territory that could be administered autonomously.
• As a result, many Maratha families rose to prominence and established their authority in various parts of India.
• They were the Gaekwads of Baroda, the Bhonsle of Nagpur, the Holkars of Indore, the Scindias of Gwalior, and the Peshwas of Poona.

Balaji Baji Rao (1740-1761)

• Balaji Baji Rao, also known as Nanasaheb Peshwa, succeeded Baji Rao I.
• Raghunath Rao, who later betrayed the Marathas and joined forces with the British, and Janardan, who died when he was young, were his two brothers.
• Nanasaheb was skilled at war, diplomacy, and administration. He spent a year improving Pune's civil administration shortly after becoming peshwa.
• The period from 1741 to 1745 in the Deccan was relatively calm, allowing Nanasaheb to reorganise agriculture and implement effective measures to protect the villagers and their produce.
• Maharashtra saw an overall improvement in revenue collection, services, and law and order. The destruction of the Maratha navy, so foresightedly built by Shivaji under the Angres, in 1756 was a major flaw in Nanasaheb's policies.
• Because Tulaji Angre refused to toe his line, Nanasaheb accepted the assistance of the British East India Company in Bombay to attack and destroy the Angre navy, opening the way for the English to establish their maritime supremacy on the west coast.
• The Marathas were soundly defeated in the third battle of Panipat in 1761 by an Afghan invader named Shah Abdali. In the 1750s, he raided the Mughal capital of Delhi several times.
• To save his capital, the effete Mughal emperor instructed his vizier, Safdarjung, to sign an agreement (known as the Ahmednama) with the Marathas under which the peshwa agreed to defend the Mughal emperor against domestic and foreign foes.
• The nizam of Hyderabad, dissatisfied with the Ahmednama and the prominence it bestowed upon the Marathas, attacked them. In 1757, the peshwa defeated the nizam's forces at Sindkhed, and in 1760, at Udgir.
• The Marathas also drove Abdali's forces out of Punjab, raising their own flag at Attock in 1756.
• When Abdali heard the news, he led a large force that would end up challenging Peshwa Nanasaheb's very large force led by his own brother Sadashiv Rao and son Vishwas Rao.
• The third Battle of Panipat took place on 14 January 1761, dealing a major setback to the Marathas in the north.
• In the battle, they lost over 100,000 men and dozens of important sirdars, as well as elephants and countless horses, heavy equipment, and treasure.
• Sadashiv Rao and Vishwas Rao were both killed in the battle. The news devastated Nanasaheb, who died shortly after on June 23, 1761.
• Panipat marked a turning point in the Marathas' fortunes; Nanasaheb's reign marked the pinnacle of Maratha power.

Peshwa Madhav Rao I (1761-1772) and his Successors

• Madhav Rao, the son of Balaji Baji Rao, became Peshwa in 1761 under the regency of Raghoba, Peshwa's younger brother.
• Madhav Rao attempted to reclaim Maratha power lost in the battle of Panipat. A bloody battle with the Nizam of Hyderabad was fought in 1763. His expeditions against Haider Ali of Mysore (1765–1767) were successful.
• However, Haider Ali quickly reclaimed nearly all of his lost territories. However, Madhav Rao reclaimed them in 1772, forcing Haider Ali to sign a humiliating treaty.
• By defeating the Rohillas (Pathans) and subjugating the Rajput states and Jat Chiefs, the Peshwa reclaimed control of northern India.
• The British were protecting the fugitive Emperor, Shah Alam II, who was in Allahabad. The Marathas returned him to Delhi in 1771. The Emperor gave them Kora and Allahabad. However, Peshwa's untimely death in 1772 ended his illustrious career.
• Madhav Rao I had no sons, so his younger brother Narayan Rao succeeded him as Peshwa in 1772. But he was murdered the following year.
• On the 40th day of his birth, his posthumous son Sawai Madhav Rao (Madhav Rao II) was proclaimed Peshwa.
• After Madhav Rao II died, Baji Rao II, Raghunath Rao's son, became Peshwa and was the last Peshwa.

Prior to the British conquest of the subcontinent, the Marathas were India's major Hindu power and came close to replacing the Mughals. With their indigenous pentarchy, the Marathas ruled from Pune a vast territory extending at its mightiest peak from Delhi to the outskirts of Madras, from Bombay to the outskirts of Calcutta.

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