The Rohingya people are a stateless Indo-Aryan ethnic group who predominantly follow Islam. Belong from Rakhine State of Myanmar which is the least developed region. Often called “the world’s” most persecuted minority. 1.1 million Rohingyas live in this region. While they trace their origins back to the fifteenth century. Ever since independence in 1948 governments in Burma (renamed as Myanmar in 1989) denied any recognition to Rohingyas groups and identified them as illegal Bengali immigrants. The Myanmar government refused to grant them citizenship status or any legal documentation effectively made them stateless.

In “citizenship law Rohingyas1982” were declared that they are non-national or foreign residents. Nowadays the Rohingya crisis is a humanitarian case marked by intense oppression and violence against these people. Since the 1970’s, a number of crackdowns on Rohingyas in Rakhine state have forced thousands of them to flee to neighboring countries. Among these countries, India—specifically Northeast India—has become a significant site for the settlement of Rohingya refugees escaping persecution and violence in Myanmar. During such crackdowns, refugees have often Reported Rape, torture, Arson, and murder by Myanmar security forces. In 2012, some Rohingya Muslims were charged with gang rape and murder of a Buddhist Woman in Rakhine. This incident led to clashes between Rohingya Muslims and Buddhists. Soon after this incident, the Rohingyas saw themselves being evicted from their homes. Their land was confiscated and their villages and habitations were attacked by the Myanmar military. According to the United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHC), more than 1,68,000 Rohingya have fled Myanmar Since 2012. And have infamously earned the title of the “Boat People”. As Rohingya speak Bengali, they first head towards Bangladesh. Bangladesh hosts the maximum number of Rohingya refugees in the world. Particularly in the Cox's Bazar district. This area is home to several refugee camps, where a large number of Rohingya have sought shelter after fleeing from Myanmar. The Rohingya people of Myanmar have faced decades of systematic discrimination and targeted violence. In late August 2017, caused almost one million people to flee to Bangladesh, creating a large-scale humanitarian crisis.

The response to this crisis, which saw the involvement of a wide range of formal and informal aid actors, prevented the loss of many lives and helped to stabilize the situation.

Two years into the response to the Rohingya refugee crisis, the United Nations Country Team (UNCT) determined that it would be a valuable exercise to synthesize the evidence and findings of three important evaluations and to consolidate the lessons learned.

Research objective:

The study of Rohingya refugees in Northeast India—focusing on their migration patterns, socio-economic challenges, and the impact on the religious landscape—holds significant importance for several reasons. The three main objectives of this research paper are mentioned below:

1. Tracing the Rohingya History and Migration to Northeast India:

Map the historical migration routes, identifying key entry points and settlement patterns. Their history of origin and identity.

2. Assessing the Impact on Islam in Northeast India:

Analyze how the arrival of Rohingya refugees has shaped the religious landscape, including the growth of Islam in specific areas. and the contributions of Rohingya Muslims in influencing Islam. Explore the dynamics of interfaith relations and potential tensions or integration between Rohingya Muslims and existing communities. Investigate the historical presence of Islam in Northeast India, including the role of indigenous Muslim groups and the influence of trade and migration.

3. Understanding the Socio-Economic Challenges and Resilience:

Examine the socio-economic issues confronting Rohingya refugees in Northeast India, focusing on employment, housing, education, and healthcare access. Analyze the methods used by Rohingya communities to adjust and blend into their new surroundings.

Research questions:

This paper seeks to address the following research questions: What are the experiences of Rohingya refugees in Northeast India regarding their migration, faith, and Community resilience? How do these experiences shape the socio-cultural and economic dynamics of the region? Additionally, how does the presence of Rohingya refugees influence the growth of Islam in Northeast India, and what implications does this have for inter-community relations? By exploring these questions, the paper aims to contribute to the existing body of knowledge on migration and refugee studies, particularly in the context of religious minorities and their resilience in the face of adversity.

Methodology

This study uses a mixed-methods approach to thoroughly explore the Rohingya situation in Northeast India. Its importance lies in revealing the intricate dynamics of the Rohingya refugee crisis, which significantly affects regional stability, human rights, and socio-economic conditions in India and its neighbors. The methodology is a comprehensive desk using the WHO - UNHCR toolkit and resource assessments. the process started from 2017 based data with an extensive search of all resources of information including peer-reviewed literature, such as reports and documents from NGOs and humanitarian agencies and articles in news media. The search strategy used broad search terms to include any relevant sources with reference to the migration, social, economic, Islamic beliefs and faith-related factors among Rohingya refugees living in the Asia-Pacific and Northeast India.

Literature Review: The Rohingya, a Muslim minority from Myanmar's Rakhine State, have endured decades of persecution, prompting their migration to Northeast India, particularly during Myanmar's military rule starting in the 1960s. This literature review examines the complex interplay of migration, faith, and community resilience among Rohingya refugees in Northeast India, focusing on Assam, Tripura, and West Bengal. It explores the historical context of Islam in the region, analyzing how the Rohingya's arrival has shaped the religious landscape and promoted Islam's growth.

1. The historical context and pathways of the Migration of Rohingya Muslims into Northeast India:

Refugee migration is vital as it offers safety to those escaping persecution, conflict, or violence, allowing them to rebuild their lives in stable settings. It also enhances host communities culturally and economically, promoting diversity and resilience. Since the 1970s, multiple crackdowns on the Rohingya population in Rakhine State have compelled thousands of Rohingyas to seek refuge in neighboring countries such as Bangladesh, Thailand and Malaysia. In 2012, Bangladesh authorities initially displayed tolerance towards the influx of immigrants from Myanmar. However, they later made the decision to withdraw all support for Rohingya Muslims to increase their migration population. For that, the boat people headed towards Thailand. Thailand’s navy gave the boat people food and medicines but did not allow them to stay in their territories. Malaysia adopted the same policy as Thailand and turned away the Rohingyas to Complicate the matter. Indonesia has closed all entry points to Rohingya refugees, effectively shutting all doors on them. As a result, many have turned to India in search of refuge. According to the Ministry of Home Affairs, India is home to approximately 40,000 Rohingya refugees. This community has faced numerous challenges, including limited access to basic services and ongoing uncertainty regarding their legal status. The Special focus of this paper on migration through North East India. Rohingyas entered into northeast India through various routes. They avoided staying near Myanmar's borders. Rohingyas spread over various states. They have their camps in Assam, Tripura, and West Bengal became key destinations for these refugees. And other parts of India such as Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, and Jammu Kashmir. Migrating to Northeast India presents various challenges. The area's geopolitical and socio-economic factors have greatly influenced the experiences of Rohingya refugees. Many faced legal and social Obstacles upon arrival, struggling to acquire refugee status. Rohingya refugees in Assam, Tripura, and West Bengal struggle with settlement, jobs, and community integration. Local residents are moved by xenophobia or political discourse. Their presence has also increased tensions in these delicate border regions. The influx of Rohingya refugees into Northeast India creates a complex crisis involving displacement, economic challenges, and religious changes. This paper examines the detailed patterns of Rohingya migration to Assam, Tripura, and West Bengal, offering an in-depth analysis of their experiences and effects on the area.

The plight of Rohingya refugees fleeing Myanmar to Northeast India showcases their desperation and strength. Escaping intense persecution in Rakhine State, marked by military violence and ethnic cleansing, many have crossed borders for safety. This paper traces their migration routes, emphasizing the impact of geopolitical and regional factors on their arrival in Northeast India. By analyzing the historical context and the routes taken, this study seeks to outline the migration patterns and the driving forces behind their journey.

The influx of Rohingya refugees into Northeast India represents a critical humanitarian emergency that highlights larger concerns surrounding forced migration, ethnic discrimination, and the difficulties associated with assimilating displaced communities into unfamiliar social and political landscapes. The Rohingya people, a Muslim minority originating from Myanmar, have endured widespread discrimination, violence, and oppression, especially following the military's aggressive actions in Rakhine State in 2017. This brutal crackdown resulted in the flight of more than 700,000 individuals, seeking safety in neighboring Bangladesh and other nations, including India. The Arrival of refugees into Northeast India has not only heightened the socio-political dynamics of the region but has also highlighted the intersection of migration and faith.

Historical context of migration:

In the 1970s, the first significant wave of migration occurred when the Burmese government initiated "Operation Nagamin" which aimed to identify and expel undocumented Bengali Muslims from the country. This marked the beginning of a long-standing pattern of displacement. Many Rohingyas fled to neighboring Bangladesh, but as conditions in Bangladesh proved challenging, some sought refuge further afield, including Northeast India.

Violence against the Rohingyas surged in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, particularly during the 2012 riots in Rakhine State and the severe military crackdown in 2017, leading to over 700,000 Rohingya refugees fleeing to Bangladesh. Some also moved to Northeast India.

This section will delve with the historical context of migration of this boat people.

Post-Independence Policies

Myanmar’s (formerly Burma) independence from Britain in 1948, the new government’s policies toward the Rohingya were marked by exclusion and discrimination. According to David Steinberg in "Burma/Myanmar: What Everyone Needs to Know," the Rohingyas were not recognized as one of the country’s official ethnic groups under the 1982 Citizenship Law. This law effectively recalls them stateless, stripping them of citizenship and legal rights. Steinberg notes that this legal marginalization fueled systematic discrimination and violence against the Rohingyas.

The 1970s and 1980s saw increased hostilities as the military government (Tatmadaw ) conducted several campaigns against the Rohingya population, often citing security concerns related to insurgent activities.

Contemporary Crisis and International Responses:

The situation escalated significantly in the early 2010s with a series of violent outbreaks. In 2012 sectarian violence between Rohingyas and Buddhists in Rakhine State led to mass displacement and migration. It is described as a precursor to the large-scale crisis that erupted in 2017.

The major turning point occurred in August 2017, when a violent crackdown by the Myanmar military, following attacks by the Arakan Rohingya Salvation Army (ARSA), led to an unprecedented exodus. Wai Wai Nu in "The Rohingya Crisis: A Comprehensive Overview" describes this period as a humanitarian plight, with over 700,000 Rohingyas fleeing to Bangladesh. The military's actions, marked by extensive violations of human rights, have been recorded by global entities like the United Nations and Amnesty International, which have classified the repression as either ethnic cleansing or genocide.

To better understand the historical context of their migration, This year by year Outline can play a crucial role in understanding:

A Brief Outline of the Historical Context of Rohingya Migration into Northeast India:

• 1948: After the independence of India and Burma (Myanmar), the Rohingya community began to face discrimination in Myanmar, leading to initial migration waves.
• 1978: The first major exodus occurred when the Myanmar government launched a military operation against the Rohingya, prompting thousands to flee to neighboring countries, including India.
• 1982: The Citizenship Law in Myanmar effectively rendered the Rohingya stateless, exacerbating their plight and leading to further migration.
• 1991-1992: A significant influx of Rohingya refugees occurred during this period due to renewed military crackdowns in Myanmar. Many sought refuge in India, particularly in the northeastern states.
• 2001: The Indian government began to recognize the presence of Rohingya refugees in various states, including Assam and Tripura, as they sought asylum from persecution.
• 2012: Violence in Rakhine State led to another wave of Rohingya fleeing to India. The Indian government faced challenges in managing the growing refugee population.
• 2015: The Rohingya crisis gained international attention as thousands attempted to escape by boat, with some landing in India. The Indian government began to tighten border security.
• 2016: Renewed violence in Myanmar led to a surge in Rohingya refugees entering India. Reports indicated that many settled in urban areas, facing challenges in legal status and livelihood.
• 2017: The Rohingya crisis escalated dramatically with a military crackdown in Rakhine State, leading to over 700,000 Rohingya fleeing to Bangladesh. Some sought refuge in India, particularly in Assam and Jammu.
• 2018-2020: The Indian government continued to face criticism for its handling of Rohingya refugees, with debates on their legal status and rights. Many Rohingya lived in makeshift camps, facing socio-economic challenges.
• 2021: The situation remained precarious for Rohingya refugees in India, with ongoing discussions about repatriation and the need for humanitarian assistance.
• 2022: The Indian government announced plans to deport some Rohingya refugees, citing security concerns, while humanitarian organizations called for protection and support for the community.
• 2023: The Rohingya community continues to face challenges in India, including legal uncertainties and socio-economic hardships, as the international community remains engaged in discussions about their rights and status.

Navigating Adversity: The Rohingya Migration Crisis into Northeast India:

The arrival of Rohingya Muslims in Northeast India underscores a significant humanitarian crisis shaped by historical, political, and socio-economic factors. This area, known for its open borders and diverse communities, has become a haven for many Rohingya escaping the dire conditions in Myanmar and the refugee camps in northern India. Yet, their journey is fraught with challenges, including discrimination and limited access to essential services. They have settled in states like Assam, Tripura, Meghalaya, and West Bengal.

1. The first destination of Rohingya Muslims is Tripura, a small northeastern state in India, which has become one of the key destinations for Rohingya refugees fleeing from Myanmar. The experiences of Rohingyas in Tripura are shaped by their specific settlement patterns, the challenges they face, and the support systems available to them.

In Tripura, Rohingya refugees primarily settle in areas with existing informal settlements or in makeshift camps. Notable locations include:

• Agartala: The capital is experiencing a significant rise in Rohingya refugees, who are residing in different city areas, particularly in poorer neighborhoods and slums. These informal settlements lead to overcrowding and poor living conditions for the refugees.
• Udaipur and Dharmanagar: These towns are also home to Rohingya refugees, primarily living in temporary shelters on the fringes. The situation mirrors that of Agartala, with informal settlements lacking proper infrastructure.

2. The second destination of Rohingya Muslims is Assam, a state in Northeast India, has emerged as a significant destination for Rohingya refugees fleeing severe persecution and violence in Myanmar’s Rakhine State. The Rohingya influx into Assam has had a profound impact on the region, influencing settlement patterns, local responses, and community dynamics. Assam is now being used as a corridor by the Rohingyas to go to Delhi or Kashmir. “Our investigations have revealed that some brokers of Tripura facilitate this infiltration,'' Assam chief minister Himanta Sarma said.

• Dispur and Guwahati: Dispur, the state capital, and Guwahati, the largest city in Assam, have seen substantial Rohingya populations. In these urban centers, Rohingyas often live in informal settlements and slums. These areas, characterized by overcrowded conditions and inadequate infrastructure, include makeshift shelters with limited access to basic amenities such as clean water, sanitation, and electricity.
• Boko and Barpeta: Towns like Boko and Barpeta have also become significant sites for Rohingya settlement. These areas, while less urbanized than Guwahati, have seen the establishment of makeshift camps and temporary shelters. Living conditions here are similarly precarious, with refugees facing challenges related to housing and sanitation.

3. The third destination is West Bengal, another important entry point through which the Rohingya refugees enter Myanmar, and settlement patterns differ coupled with challenges and supporting mechanisms. A comparison of the situation in West Bengal with those of Assam and Tripura reflects differences and similarities regarding the experiences of the Rohingya refugees in these northeastern states of India.

Rohingya refugees are mainly scattered over the urban and peri-urban fringes of West Bengal. Major places are:

• Kolkata: The Capital city of West Bengal, Kolkata houses a significant number of Rohingya
• refugees. It is larger in the slum areas and squatter clusters of the city. These places are markedly defined by untold overcrowding, with completely insufficient physical facilities.
• Burdwan and Murarai: Apart from Kolkata, refugee Rohingyas have also come to towns like Burdwan and Murarai. Like in other places, they are found living in temporary camps or makeshift shelters.

The deliberate migration of Rohingya Muslims into Northeast India portends a humanitarian crisis at the behest of historical, political, and socio-economic factors. Their settlement in the states of Tripura, Assam, and West Bengal depicts a complex interplay between a host of issues that include congestion, inadequate infrastructure, and restricted access to basic services. While these states offer a haven of refuge, the living conditions of the Rohingyas are extremely precarious; they suffer from discrimination and thus have to depend on informal networks for sustenance.

Community Resilience: Studies on Refugee Resilience and Integration, with a Focus on the Rohingya Experience:

The concept of community resilience in the context of refugee populations involves examining how displaced communities adapt, recover, integrate into new environments and overcome challenges. Strong social ties within refugee communities can provide emotional support, practical assistance, and a sense of belonging. For the Rohingya refugees, community networks in refugee camps and host areas have been vital in managing stress and maintaining cultural practices.

This section reviews key studies and theories related to refugee resilience and integration, particularly focusing on the Rohingya experience in northeast India.

One foundational framework for understanding community resilience is Ecological Systems Theory, as developed by Urie Bronfenbrenner. This theory emphasizes the complex interplay between individuals and their environments, including various systems such as family, community, and broader societal influences. In the context of refugees, this theory helps explain how external factors (such as displacement policies and host community attitudes) interact with internal factors (like social networks and coping mechanisms) to affect resilience. Studies applying this theory have shown that refugees' ability to adapt is significantly influenced by their immediate social environment and support systems.

Resilience Theory focuses on the capacity of individuals and communities to withstand and recover from adversity. resilience underscores the importance of protective factors such as social support, personal skills, and community resources in fostering resilience. For refugees, resilience involves not only overcoming immediate challenges but also navigating long-term integration into new societies. Key factors that bolster resilience, including community cohesion, access to services and the ability to maintain cultural identity.

Economic and Educational Integration:

Economic opportunities and access to education are significant factors influencing refugee resilience. how access to employment and educational resources can empower refugees and enhance their ability to rebuild their lives. For Rohingya refugees in Northeast India, integrating into the local labor market and accessing educational opportunities have been major challenges due to legal barriers and socio-economic constraints. Research shows that despite these obstacles, Rohingyas have established informal economic activities and community-based educational initiatives to support their livelihoods and future prospects.

Cultural Identity and Community Cohesion:

Maintaining cultural identity is another critical aspect of refugee resilience. It is the bedrock of a community's resilience. It fosters a sense of belonging, strengthens social bonds, and helps communities adapt to change. Preserving cultural practices and religious beliefs can help refugees maintain a sense of self and community cohesion. For the Rohingyas, their ability to practice Islam and maintain cultural traditions has been a source of strength and resilience. Despite facing discrimination and legal challenges, Rohingya communities in Northeast India continue to uphold their cultural and religious practices, contributing to their overall resilience.

To overcome the community Resilience and challenges of Rohingyas, NGOs play a very important role in the service for the Rohingya community, specifically those residing in Cox's Bazar, Bangladesh, and Northeast India. NGOs are providing humanitarian aid such as food, water, shelter, and health care to the large population of Rohingya refugees that reside in these very congested camps. They also establish educational programs.

Some challenges the Rohingya Muslims faced in north Southeast India:

1. Overcrowding: A lot of people live in crowded informal areas where space is limited. This overcrowding makes problems with sanitation, health, and general well-being even worse.
2. Inadequate Infrastructure: The lack of proper housing, clean water, and sanitation facilities is a major concern. The temporary nature of many shelters means that refugees often have to endure harsh weather conditions without adequate protection.
3. Legal and Administrative Challenges: The lack of legal recognition complicates access to public services, including health care, education, and legal aid. Refugees often work in the informal sector, where they face exploitation and job insecurity.
4. Employment: Many Rohingyas are engaged in low-paying, informal jobs that offer little security. These jobs often involve manual labor or small-scale trade, which are physically demanding and poorly remunerated.
5. Income Inequality: The refugees' inability to secure formal employment opportunities exacerbates economic inequalities. Without legal work permits, they are often relegated to the lowest rungs of the labor market.
6. Health Care Access: Access to health care is limited, and many refugees rely on local clinics and occasional medical camps organized by NGOs. Chronic diseases, infections, and malnutrition are common due to poor living conditions.

Influence on Islam in Northeast India through the arrival of Rohingya refugees:

The arrival of Rohingya refugees from Myanmar in recent decades represents a significant new chapter in the historical narrative of Islam in Northeast India. The Rohingyas, fleeing persecution and violence in Myanmar, have settled in various parts of Northeast India, including Assam, Tripura, and West Bengal. Their migration adds a new dimension to the region’s Islamic presence and cultural diversity.

Islam's introduction to Northeast India can be traced back to early maritime trade routes. Muslim traders from the Arabian Peninsula and Persia established contact with the Indian subcontinent through coastal routes. Richard M. Eaton in "The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier" describes how these traders settled in various parts of India, including the northeastern regions. Their interactions with local populations facilitated the early spread of Islamic practices and ideas. The influence of the Bengal Sultanate and later the Mughal

Empire played a significant role in shaping the Islamic landscape of Northeast India. The Bengal Sultanate, with its capital in Gaur, became a major center of Islamic culture and trade.

Satish Chandra, in "Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals," describes how the Bengal Sultanate's expansion into the northeastern regions introduced Islamic administration and cultural practices.

The arrival of Rohingya refugees in Northeast India has had a notable impact on the Islamic landscape of the region. Their presence has contributed to various aspects of Islamic growth and transformation, influencing both the demographic composition and cultural practices within the local Muslim communities. The contributions of Rohingya Muslims significant role in promoting the growth of Islam in the northeast Indian landscape.

The settlement of Rohingyas in Assam, Tripura, and West Bengal has led to an increase in the local Muslim population, particularly in areas where Muslims already make up a large portion of residents. Rohingyas have introduced new religious practices, styles of worship, and cultural traditions that complement and diversify existing Islamic practices in the region.

Local Muslim organizations and mosques have played a critical role in providing support to Rohingya refugees, including religious, social, and economic assistance. The increase in the Muslim population due to the arrival of Rohingya refugees has led to the expansion of Islamic institutions in Northeast India. This includes the construction and enlargement of mosques and Islamic centers to serve the growing community. Several new mosques have been established in areas with significant Rohingya populations to accommodate the increased number of worshippers. The need for religious education and community support has led to the development of new Islamic schools and educational centers. The historical presence and development of Islam in Northeast India have been shaped by a series of migration waves, trade interactions, and cultural exchanges over centuries. This context provides valuable insights into how Islam was introduced and integrated into the region, and how contemporary migrations, such as those of the Rohingya, fit into this historical narrative.

Sufi Missionaries: In addition to traders, Sufi missionaries played a crucial role in the spread of Islam in Northeast India. Sufi saints traveled to the region during the 13th and 14th centuries, establishing religious centers and spreading Islamic teachings. These missionaries were instrumental in converting local populations and integrating Islamic practices into regional cultural contexts.

Discussion and Findings:

The International Organisation for Migration (IOM), the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) tasked a team of two consultants with developing a synthesis evaluation report. The evaluation synthesis compiles evidence and findings from evaluations commissioned by the three agencies in 2018.

The purpose of this evaluation synthesis, then, is to provide a consolidated picture of the response of the three United Nations actors and to draw lessons learned, which should inform future efforts both for the Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh and for other refugee and humanitarian responses worldwide. The primary audience for this evaluation is the UNCT in Bangladesh and its constituent agencies, as well as the staff and management of UNHCR, IOM and UNICEF. Partners involved in the Rohingya Response in Bangladesh – including government, humanitarian and Development. The Independent Fact Finding Mission of the United Nations Human Rights Commission found in September 2018 that there had been widespread and systematic attacks directed at civilian populations in Rakhine, Kachin and Shan States and that in the case of the Rohingya, these fell within the definition of genocide under international law.

This section will give the overview of the findings and different collective information on Rohingya refugees.

Rohingya refugees in Thailand

The UNHCR currently assists around 100 Rohingya refugees in Thailand who are confined to shelters or kept in detention centers. A few thousand more live in the community throughout Thailand. Southern Thailand is a transit point to Malaysia which has attracted smugglers and traffickers taking Rohingya to Malaysia. Rohingya have experienced severe abuses at the hands of the smugglers and traffickers, and in 2015, mass graves were discovered with what are believed to be Rohingya remains in southern Thailand.

Age group distribution by gender in Thailand

This flowchart presents data from 107 Rohingya refugees in Thailand between January and April 2023, comprising 61 women and 46 men. The survey was conducted across three provinces. The average age of participants was 36, with most aged between 26 and 35. Nearly half (48%) migrated with children. In terms of education, 41% finished primary school, 30% completed secondary or high school, and 7% earned a university degree, while 21% had no formal education.

Rohingya refugees in Malaysia

Currently, there are over 70,000 Rohingya refugees registered with UNHCR Malaysia and an estimated 30,000-40,000 more who remain unregistered. The Rohingya came in waves with the highest numbers of arrivals in the period 1990-1994, 2000-2004 and 2012-2015. In the period from 2012 to 2015, many arrived by boat in Thailand after undertaking dangerous journeys across the Andaman Sea prior to being smuggled or trafficked into Malaysia. Rohingya live throughout Peninsular Malaysia, all being considered 'illegal' or 'prohibited' immigrants under the Immigration Act and therefore are at risk of arrest. The Rohingya in Malaysia live in overcrowded housing with a lack of access to educational opportunities, employment, and healthcare. Some Rohingya have lived for decades in Malaysia and have established livelihoods and/or are in receipt of remittances from relatives resettled in Australia, Canada, Denmark, or Sweden but many continue to live in precarious economic situations. Those who have been detained in immigration detention centers are at risk of indefinite confinement, malnutrition, physical and mental abuse and assault, exploitation and extortion.

Age range and gender in Malaysia

Data for this snapshot was gathered from 4 March to 30 September 2021 in Johor Bahru, Kelantan, Kuala Lumpur, Malacca, Pahang, Pulau Pinang, and Selangor, Malaysia. A total of 557 interviews were conducted both over the phone and in person. The findings reflect the experiences of the Rohingya respondents interviewed but should not be applied to the broader Rohingya community in Malaysia. Among the respondents, 46% are women and 54% are men, with an average age of 23. Additionally, 28% reported living or migrating with children during the interview, and 16% identified as having a disability, primarily related to hearing, vision, and mobility challenges.

Myanmar's ethnic diversity, comprising over 135 groups, significantly influences its culture and politics. The Bamar (Approximately 68% of the total population). as the dominant group, shape national identity but often marginalize minorities like the Shan, Karen, and Rakhine. The Rohingya crisis exemplifies the tensions between ethnic groups, highlighting the vulnerabilities of marginalized communities. The Kachin and Mon contribute rich cultural heritages but face challenges in representation. Smaller groups like the “Wa” and Kareni also navigate issues of identity and rights. Addressing these complexities is crucial for fostering national unity and sustainable peace, emphasizing the need for recognition and respect for all ethnic identities in Myanmar.

Rohingya refugees in India:

The majority of Rohingya refugees, nearly 1 million, are now living in the largest refugee settlement in the world in Bangladesh. Tens of thousands live in other countries around the region, including Malaysia and India, and to a lesser extent Indonesia and Thailand. The context of the Bangladesh camps has been extensively covered, including in past Refugees International reports. The focus of this report is on the lesser-known population of Rohingya refugees living in India.

Estimates of the number of Rohingya living in India vary widely. UNHCR has registered more than 20,000 Rohingya refugees. The last public estimate by the Indian government in 2017 put the number at 40,000. The Rohingya population in India is a mix of those who arrived following earlier periods of persecution and those who have arrived more recently from the camps in Bangladesh. At least 13,000 Rohingya refugees entered India between 2012 and 2016, mostly from Bangladesh. Recently arrived refugees told the team that they left Bangladesh to come to India Because they were not given all the benefits that earlier refugees received, including shelter and rations at the refugee camps. Three main policies of India regarding refugees: Lack of Formal Legal Framework, Citizenship Amendment Act (2019), Detention and Deportation Policies.

Ecological Systems Theory by Urie Bronfenbrenner on Rohingya resilience:

The application of Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory in eliciting the experiences of the Rohingya provides a complete framework for understanding the multilevel influences on resilience and interaction within various environments. This discussion synthesizes the main findings of the analysis, indicating the interplay between individual, familial, community, and societal factors shaping the ability of the Rohingya to cope with adversity.

The microsystem influences the resilience of the Rohingya either through family dynamics or through peer relationships. This indeed acts as a protective factor in their challenges of displacement due to strong familial support. The emotional and psychological stability brought in by family members creates a sense of security, which is an important component in developing mechanisms for coping. Additionally, peer interactions in refugee camps or host communities further advance the possibility of social support networks that help build resilience. The application of Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory begets reasoned arguments on the resilience and interaction with the Rohingyas. Comprehending such a complex interplay at individual, familial, community, and societal levels will help stakeholders develop appropriate interventions that would facilitate the development of coping mechanisms among the Rohingyas and promote their well-being. This broad-based approach is critical in addressing the peculiar challenges faced by the Rohingyas and integrating them into host communities.

Conclusion:

The influx of Rohingya refugees into Northeast India underscores a significant humanitarian crisis stemming from years of persecution in Myanmar. Their settlement in Assam, Tripura, and West Bengal presents intricate geopolitical and socio-economic issues, such as legal ambiguity, discrimination, and restricted access to vital services. Despite these challenges, the Rohingya have demonstrated resilience by building strong community ties, participating in informal economies, and preserving their cultural and religious practices.

Their presence has notably influenced the growth of Islam in the area, leading to an increase in mosques and Islamic institutions. Overcrowded living conditions and limited access to education, healthcare, and job opportunities pose significant obstacles. The lack of a formal legal status complicates the Rohingya's prospects for a stable future. Addressing these challenges necessitates coordinated action from government agencies and NGOs to facilitate their dignified integration into Indian society. A holistic strategy that emphasizes legal recognition, access to services, and interfaith dialogue is essential for fostering a more inclusive future.

The challenges and discrimination faced by the Rohingya refugees, we can draw on the wisdom of the Quranic verse, "Allah does not change the condition of a people until they change what is within themselves" (Quran 13:11), and the concept of divine mercy and justice.

This verse emphasizes the importance of self-initiative, personal responsibility, and collective action. While the Rohingya people have faced immense persecution and displacement, meaningful change in their situation requires both internal transformation within their community and external support from broader society. The Almighty offers guidance but expects people to take active steps towards improving their own circumstances. Empowerment through education, community resilience, spiritual renewal, and international cooperation can all play a vital role in improving their circumstances. Through sincere efforts and a will for change, they can move towards a future of justice, peace, and dignity, supported by both human and divine assistance.

Protests can be a powerful tool to demand rights and recognition, but in the context of statelessness and refugee status, there are risks involved, especially in countries where refugees may not have legal protection or a formal framework that guarantees their rights.

.    .    .

References:

• Books and Edited Volumes
• Ahmed, Imtiaz. Rohingya Refugees in South Asia: Regional Security, Humanitarian and Economic Challenges. Routledge, 2017.
• Nair, Shashi. Migration and Refugee Dynamics in South Asia. Oxford University Press, 2019.
• Rahman, Mohammad. Islam in South Asia: The Role of Migration and Trade. Cambridge University Press, 2020.
• David Steinberg "Burma/Myanmar: What Everyone Needs to Know Journal Articles Chaudhury, Madan. "The Impact of Rohingya Migration on Local Communities in Northeast India." Journal of Refugee Studies, vol. 33, no. 1, 2020, pp. 25-45.
• Oxford University Press, https://doi.org/10.1093/jrs/fey036.
• Das, Rituparna. "Socio-Economic Challenges Faced by Rohingya Refugees in Tripura." South Asian Journal of Human Rights, vol. 15, no. 2, 2021, pp. 76-92, https://doi.org/10.1177/09718322211010234.
• TRENDS, CAUSES AND IMPACTS OF LABOUR MIGRATION IN INDIA" IJRTI (ijcrt.org)
• Durable solutions to the Rohingya crisis in Myanmar 21
  June 2023 Durable solutions to the Rohingya crisis in Myanmar OHCHR

Reports:

• Amnesty International. Myanmar: “We Will Destroy Everything”  Military Abuses in Rakhine State. 2018, Myanmar: “We will destroy everything” : Military responsibility for crimes against humanity in Rakhine State - Amnesty International
• UNHCR. Global Trends: Forced Displacement in 2021. 2021, https://www.unhcr.org/global-trends-report-2021.
• Culture, context and mental health of Rohingya refugees _ UNHCR. Culture, context and mental health of Rohingya
  refugees | UNHCR
• Synthesis of Rohingya Response Evaluations of IOM, UNICEF
  and UNHCR5e453ea64.pdf (unhcr.org)

Websites:

• International Organization for Migration (IOM). Migration and Displacement in South Asia. 2022,
  https://www.iom.int/migration-displacement-south-asia.
• A Shadow of Refuge: Rohingya Refugees In India. Daniel Sullivan and Priyali Sur. Displaced and Detained: Rohingya in India - Refugees International
• Rohingya crisis Rohingya families fled violence. But seven years later, uncertainty about the future still grips those living in the world’s largest refugee settlement. Rohingya crisis | UNICEF
• Myanmar: New Atrocities Against Rohingya Escalating Fighting Amid 7 Years of
• Desperation Myanmar: New Atrocities Against Rohingya |
  Human Rights Watch (hrw.org)