Kohl (Kajal/Surma): From Ancient Ritual to Modern Cosmetic Science

Kohl, also widely known as kajal in South Asia and surma in parts of the Middle East and Central Asia, is a fine black powder traditionally applied around the eyes. Used for thousands of years, it represents one of the earliest known forms of eye cosmetics. Historically prepared from naturally occurring minerals such as galena (lead sulfide), along with organic materials like soot or plant extracts, kohl has served both aesthetic and functional purposes. Its application typically involves lining the eyelids or darkening the eyelashes and eyebrows, enhancing the visual prominence of the eyes.

The use of kohl has been geographically widespread, spanning regions of North and Sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East, and South Asia. Across these diverse areas, it has developed unique cultural forms while maintaining a consistent core function. Despite regional differences in preparation and symbolism, its presence across civilisations highlights its enduring significance in human societies.

Kohl possesses a dual identity that distinguishes it from many modern cosmetics. On one hand, it functions as a beauty product, used to accentuate facial features and conform to aesthetic ideals. On the other hand, it has been traditionally regarded as a substance with medicinal, protective, and spiritual properties. In various cultures, it has been believed to protect the eyes from harsh sunlight, ward off infections, and even guard against supernatural harm such as the “evil eye.”

In contemporary society, kohl remains highly relevant. It continues to be used in traditional practices while also existing in modern, commercially manufactured forms such as eyeliner pencils and cosmetic-grade kajal products. This coexistence reflects a broader intersection between heritage and industrial innovation.

This article aims to provide a comprehensive examination of kohl by exploring its historical development, analysing its composition and preparation methods, evaluating its cultural and religious significance, critically assessing its claimed medical benefits, and addressing modern health concerns and regulatory frameworks surrounding its use.

Historical Evolution of Kohl

Origins in Ancient Civilisations

The origins of kohl can be traced back to some of the earliest known human civilisations, particularly Ancient Egypt and the neighbouring region of Nubia. Archaeological evidence, including cosmetic palettes, applicator sticks, and residue found in burial sites, indicates that kohl was widely used as early as the fourth millennium BCE. Both men and women applied kohl to line their eyelids, making it a universal element of personal grooming rather than a gender-specific practice.

The primary materials used in early kohl formulations were naturally occurring minerals such as galena (lead sulfide) and malachite (a copper carbonate mineral). These substances were ground into a fine powder and often mixed with fats or oils to facilitate application. Beyond aesthetics, the use of these materials reflected a practical understanding of the environment. The dark pigmentation reduced glare from the intense desert sun and may have helped protect the eyes from irritation caused by sand and dust. Additionally, kohl held symbolic and religious importance, as heavily lined eyes were associated with divine protection and spiritual well-being.

Spread Across Regions

Over time, the use of kohl spread beyond Egypt through trade and cultural exchange. It was introduced to Persia, where it became known as sormeh and developed its own distinctive preparation techniques. From there, the practice extended into the classical civilisations of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, where eye cosmetics were integrated into broader beauty routines. Although these societies adapted kohl to their own aesthetic preferences, its essential function as an eye-enhancing substance remained consistent.

Simultaneously, evidence of kohl use has been discovered in the Indus Valley Civilisation of the Indian subcontinent. Excavations have revealed small containers and applicators that likely held eye cosmetics, indicating that similar practices developed independently or were introduced through early trade networks. This widespread presence underscores the significance of eye adornment across ancient cultures and suggests a shared human inclination toward both beautification and protection.

Medieval and Early Modern Periods

During the medieval period, kohl continued to play an important role in the daily lives of people across the Middle East and North Africa. Among nomadic groups such as the Bedouins, it was commonly used not only for aesthetic enhancement but also for practical purposes, including protection against harsh environmental conditions. The preparation of kohl during this time often involved locally available materials, including plant-based substances and soot, reflecting regional adaptation and resourcefulness.

The introduction of kohl to South Asia was significantly influenced by trade and cultural interactions during the Mughal period. Muslim traders and rulers brought with them established traditions of kohl usage, which gradually integrated into local customs. In the Indian subcontinent, it became widely known as kajal or surma and was incorporated into everyday life, religious practices, and traditional medicine. Its use extended beyond adults to include children, often applied as a protective measure against the “evil eye.”

As kohl became embedded in various cultural traditions, it also took on localised meanings and preparation methods. This period marked the transformation of kohl from a shared ancient practice into a diverse cultural artefact shaped by regional identities.

20th Century Revival and Globalisation

The early 20th century witnessed a revival of interest in kohl, particularly in Western societies. This resurgence was closely linked to the Discovery of Tutankhamun's tomb (1922), which sparked widespread fascination with ancient Egyptian art, culture, and aesthetics. The dramatic eye makeup seen in Egyptian artefacts inspired new beauty trends, leading to the adoption of kohl-like styles in Europe and the United States.

Prominent cultural figures played a crucial role in popularising this look. Actress Theda Bara became known for her heavily lined eyes in silent films, while cosmetics entrepreneur Helena Rubinstein helped commercialise eye makeup products inspired by traditional kohl. These influences contributed to the integration of kohl aesthetics into mainstream Western fashion.

As the cosmetics industry expanded, kohl evolved from a traditional substance into a modern product category. Advances in chemistry and manufacturing led to the development of safer, standardised formulations, often in the form of pencils or liquid eyeliners. Today, kohl is a global cosmetic staple, bridging ancient traditions and contemporary beauty practices while continuing to reflect its rich historical legacy.

Composition and Preparation Methods

Traditional Ingredients

The composition of kohl has historically varied across regions, reflecting differences in available resources, cultural practices, and intended uses. The most common traditional ingredients were mineral-based substances, particularly galena (lead sulfide), antimony, and malachite. Galena was especially valued for its deep black colour and smooth texture when finely ground, making it ideal for outlining the eyes. Antimony-based compounds, often referred to as ithmid in certain traditions, were also widely used and believed to possess therapeutic properties. Malachite, with its greenish hue, was sometimes incorporated either alone or in combination with darker minerals.

In addition to mineral components, organic materials played a significant role in the preparation of kohl. These included soot obtained from burning oil or natural resins, charred almond shells, and plant-based extracts. Such ingredients were often chosen for their availability and ease of processing. In some cultures, aromatic substances like frankincense were added, not only to enhance fragrance but also to associate the cosmetic with ritual or medicinal use.

Regional variations in formulation were considerable. In North Africa and the Middle East, mineral-based kohl dominated, while in South Asia, plant-derived and soot-based kajal preparations were more common, especially in household settings. These differences highlight the adaptability of kohl as a cosmetic and its integration into diverse ecological and cultural contexts.

Methods of Preparation

Traditional methods of preparing kohl were relatively simple but required careful handling to achieve the desired consistency and quality. The primary process involved grinding solid ingredients into a fine powder using stone mortars and pestles. The fineness of the powder was crucial, as coarse particles could irritate the sensitive eye area.

Once powdered, the material was often mixed with oils or fats, such as castor oil, ghee, or other natural lipids, to improve adhesion and ease of application. This mixture created a smooth paste or semi-solid substance that could be applied evenly along the eyelids. In some cases, the powder was used dry, depending on local traditions and preferences.

Kohl was typically stored in specialised containers made from materials such as wood, metal, or glass. These containers often featured narrow openings to prevent contamination and preserve the powder. Application tools varied but commonly included thin sticks or rods designed to transfer the kohl directly onto the inner or outer eyelid margins.

A key distinction exists between homemade and commercial products. Homemade kohl, especially in South Asian households, is often prepared using traditional techniques, such as collecting soot from oil lamps. While these methods emphasise natural ingredients, they lack standardisation and quality control. In contrast, commercially produced kohl is manufactured under controlled conditions, with consistent formulations and packaging designed for convenience and safety.

Chemical Composition Analysis

Modern scientific analysis has revealed that the chemical composition of traditional kohl is highly variable and often more complex than previously assumed. Many samples have been found to contain lead compounds, particularly lead sulfide (galena), as well as lead carbonate and other derivatives. In addition, elements such as antimony, manganese oxide, and black copper oxide have been identified in various formulations.

Some historical samples, particularly those from ancient Iran, have shown the presence of natural graphite and manganese oxide, indicating early experimentation with different mineral sources. Organic components, including carbon-based soot and plant residues, contribute to the overall composition and influence the texture and colour of the final product.

The variability in composition is influenced by factors such as geographic location, historical period, and method of preparation. This diversity makes it difficult to generalise about the safety or properties of kohl without specific analysis. To address this, scientists employ a range of analytical techniques, including spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, and electron microscopy, to identify the elemental and molecular composition of kohl samples. These methods provide detailed insights into both the benefits and potential risks associated with different formulations.

Transition to Modern Formulations

The transition from traditional kohl to modern cosmetic products has been driven largely by advances in chemistry, industrial manufacturing, and increased awareness of health risks. One of the most significant changes has been the replacement of toxic elements, particularly lead-based compounds, with safer alternatives that meet regulatory standards.

Modern kohl and eyeliner products are typically formulated using carbon black, iron oxides, and other approved pigments that provide the desired colour without posing significant health hazards. These ingredients are carefully tested for safety, stability, and compatibility with sensitive skin areas, especially around the eyes.

In addition to changes in composition, the method of application has also evolved. Traditional loose powders have largely been replaced by pencil eyeliners, gel formulations, and liquid liners, which offer greater precision, convenience, and hygiene. These products are often packaged in user-friendly designs and may include additional features such as waterproofing or long-lasting wear.

Despite these innovations, many modern products continue to draw inspiration from traditional kohl, both in branding and formulation. As a result, contemporary cosmetic-grade kohl represents a synthesis of ancient practices and modern scientific standards, balancing cultural heritage with safety and functionality.

Cultural and Religious Significance

Symbolism in Ancient Cultures

In ancient societies, kohl was far more than a cosmetic; it functioned as a symbol deeply embedded in religious and spiritual belief systems. In Ancient Egypt, the application of kohl around the eyes was closely associated with the divine figure of Horus. According to Egyptian mythology, the “Eye of Horus” represented protection, healing, and restoration. By outlining their eyes in dark pigments, individuals symbolically invoked this sacred imagery, believing it would safeguard them from harm and illness.

This symbolic association extended beyond mere representation. Kohl was thought to act as a protective barrier against both physical and metaphysical threats. The harsh environmental conditions of desert regions—intense sunlight, dust, and wind—were believed to be mitigated by kohl’s application. At the same time, it was seen as a defence against unseen spiritual forces, reflecting a worldview in which health, environment, and spirituality were interconnected.

Role in Islamic Traditions

Kohl also holds an important place in Islamic cultural and religious practices. A particular form known as ithmid, traditionally derived from antimony, is associated with the practices of the Prophet Muhammad. Historical accounts suggest that he used ithmid for both cosmetic and therapeutic purposes, leading many Muslims to regard its use as part of Sunnah—the recommended practices based on his life and teachings.

As a result, the application of kohl in Islamic societies is not solely an aesthetic choice but also a reflection of religious identity and adherence. It is commonly used during daily routines as well as on special occasions such as religious festivals. In some interpretations, ithmid is believed to strengthen eyesight or maintain ocular health, further reinforcing its perceived value beyond appearance.

The continued use of kohl within Islamic traditions illustrates how cosmetics can transcend their functional role and become integrated into systems of belief, where bodily practices are aligned with spiritual ideals.

Social and Aesthetic Functions

Across cultures, kohl has served as a versatile tool for enhancing physical appearance. Unlike many modern cosmetics that are often gender-specific, kohl has historically been used by both men and women. Its application accentuates the eyes, which are universally regarded as a central feature of facial expression and communication. By darkening the eyelids and lashes, kohl creates contrast and depth, contributing to a striking and expressive look.

Beyond everyday use, kohl plays a significant role in social rituals and ceremonial contexts. Among the Wodaabe people of the African Sahel region, for example, men use kohl and other cosmetic elements during traditional dances and courtship rituals. In these performances, physical appearance becomes a key factor in attracting potential partners, and kohl is used strategically to emphasise the eyes and enhance facial symmetry.

Such practices highlight the broader social function of kohl as a means of self-presentation. It operates not only as a beauty enhancer but also as a communicative tool that conveys status, attractiveness, and cultural belonging within specific social contexts.

South Asian Cultural Practices

In South Asia, kohl—commonly referred to as kajal or surma—has been deeply integrated into everyday life and cultural traditions. One of its most distinctive uses is its application to infants and young children. Small dots or lines of kajal are often placed around the eyes or on the forehead with the belief that it protects the child from the “evil eye,” a widely held concept referring to harm caused by envy or negative attention.

Although this practice is rooted in superstition rather than scientific evidence, it remains prevalent in many communities, reflecting the enduring influence of traditional beliefs. Kohl is also an essential element in classical performing arts, where it serves both aesthetic and functional purposes. In dance forms such as Bharatanatyam and Kathakali, performers use heavy eye makeup, including kohl, to exaggerate eye movements and expressions. This is particularly important in conveying emotions and narratives to audiences, especially in large performance spaces.

Through these practices, kohl becomes a medium of artistic expression as well as cultural continuity, linking daily life with ritual and performance.

Symbol of Identity and Tradition

Over time, kohl has evolved into a powerful symbol of cultural identity and continuity. Its use is often passed down through generations, with preparation methods, application techniques, and associated beliefs preserved within families and communities. This intergenerational transmission reinforces a sense of belonging and cultural heritage.

Kohl also represents the intersection of beauty, belief, and identity. It embodies aesthetic ideals while simultaneously carrying layers of symbolic meaning, from protection and spirituality to social expression. In many societies, the act of applying kohl is not merely a routine but a culturally significant practice that reflects shared values and traditions.

In the modern world, where globalisation and commercialisation influence beauty standards, kohl continues to serve as a link to historical roots. Even as its forms and formulations evolve, its cultural and religious significance remains deeply embedded, demonstrating its resilience as both a cosmetic and a cultural artefact.

Functional and Claimed Benefits

Cosmetic Benefits

The primary and most universally acknowledged function of kohl is cosmetic enhancement. By outlining the eyelids and darkening the lash line, kohl creates a strong visual contrast that accentuates the shape, size, and depth of the eyes. This effect enhances facial symmetry and draws attention to one of the most expressive features of the human face. The dark pigmentation also gives the illusion of fuller eyelashes and more defined contours, contributing to a striking and aesthetically pleasing appearance.

Historically, these visual effects established kohl as a foundational element of beauty practices across multiple cultures. Its influence is evident in the development of modern eyeliner products, which replicate and refine the same basic principle of eye definition. Contemporary cosmetics, including pencil liners, gels, and liquid eyeliners, can be understood as direct technological extensions of traditional kohl, preserving its essential aesthetic function while improving precision, durability, and ease of use.

Environmental Protection Claims

In addition to its cosmetic role, kohl has long been associated with protective functions, particularly in harsh environmental conditions. One widely held belief is that kohl helps protect the eyes from intense sunlight by reducing glare. The dark pigment surrounding the eyes may absorb or deflect certain wavelengths of light, potentially offering a degree of visual comfort in bright, arid climates such as deserts.

Kohl has also been thought to act as a barrier against environmental irritants, including dust, sand, and wind. By lining the eyelids, it may help trap fine particles before they enter the աչ, thereby reducing irritation. In some traditions, it has even been suggested that certain ingredients in kohl repel insects, providing an additional layer of protection in outdoor settings.

While these claims are grounded in practical observations, their effectiveness varies depending on the composition of the kohl and the conditions in which it is used.

Medicinal and Therapeutic Claims

Traditional uses of kohl often extend into the realm of medicine and therapy. In various cultures, it has been believed to possess antimicrobial properties, helping to prevent or treat eye infections. Certain mineral components, such as antimony-based compounds, have historically been associated with cleansing or healing effects.

Another commonly cited benefit is the improvement of vision. Some traditions hold that regular application of kohl strengthens eyesight or prevents ocular disorders. These beliefs have contributed to its use not only by adults but also by children, particularly in societies where traditional medicine plays a significant role in daily life.

However, such therapeutic claims are largely based on anecdotal evidence and long-standing cultural practices rather than systematic scientific validation.

Critical Evaluation

A critical examination of these claimed benefits reveals a clear distinction between traditional beliefs and scientifically verified effects. While the cosmetic advantages of kohl are well-established and universally accepted, many of its protective and medicinal claims lack consistent empirical support. Scientific studies have provided limited evidence for antimicrobial activity in certain formulations, but these effects are generally weak and not sufficient to justify medical use.

Moreover, the variability in kohl’s composition complicates any general assessment of its benefits. Products containing harmful substances, such as lead or other heavy metals, may pose significant health risks that outweigh any potential advantages. As a result, modern medical and public health perspectives emphasise caution, particularly when kohl is used in traditional, unregulated forms.

In contemporary contexts, the functional value of kohl is best understood primarily in cosmetic terms, with other claimed benefits requiring scrutiny and scientific validation before being accepted as reliable.

Health Risks and Toxicology

Lead Exposure Risks

One of the most significant health concerns associated with traditional kohl is the presence of lead, particularly in the form of galena (lead sulfide). Numerous studies have shown that many commercially available and homemade kohl products, especially in parts of Africa, the Middle East, and South Asia, contain high concentrations of lead. This is primarily due to the continued use of traditional mineral sources without adequate purification or regulation.

Lead exposure poses serious risks to human health, even at low levels. When applied around the eyes, kohl can enter the body through the skin, tear ducts, or accidental ingestion, particularly when individuals rub their eyes. Children are especially vulnerable, as their bodies absorb lead more readily and their developing nervous systems are highly sensitive to its effects. Elevated blood lead levels in children have been linked to cognitive impairment, reduced IQ, behavioural disorders, and delayed development.

In infants and young children, the risks are even more pronounced. The traditional practice of applying kohl to babies, often for cultural or protective reasons, can inadvertently expose them to toxic substances during a critical stage of brain development. This has made lead-containing kohl a major concern for pediatric health authorities worldwide.

Other Toxic Elements

In addition to lead, other potentially harmful elements have been identified in various kohl formulations. Antimony, commonly used in traditional preparations such as ithmid, has raised concerns due to its chemical similarity to arsenic and its potential toxicity. While small amounts of certain antimony compounds may not pose immediate harm, prolonged or excessive exposure can lead to irritation of the skin and eyes, as well as systemic toxicity in severe cases.

Other metals and compounds, including manganese, copper oxides, and silicon-based particles, have also been detected in kohl samples. Although some of these elements are less toxic than lead, their presence in unregulated concentrations can still contribute to adverse health effects over time. Chronic exposure to such substances may result in cumulative toxicity, particularly when kohl is used regularly over extended periods.

The variability in ingredient composition further complicates risk assessment. Without standardised manufacturing practices, users often have no reliable way of determining the safety of a given product, increasing the likelihood of unintended exposure to harmful substances.

Scientific Studies and Findings

Modern toxicological research has provided substantial evidence regarding the health risks of traditional kohl. Analytical studies using techniques such as atomic absorption spectroscopy and X-ray fluorescence have consistently identified high levels of lead in many samples. In some cases, lead concentrations have been found to exceed safe limits by a significant margin.

Clinical studies and case reports have documented elevated blood lead levels among habitual users of kohl. These findings are particularly evident in children and women who use kohl frequently. In several documented cases, discontinuation of kohl use led to a measurable decline in blood lead levels, strongly indicating a direct link between the cosmetic and toxic exposure.

Research has also explored the potential antimicrobial properties of certain kohl ingredients, but these benefits are generally minimal compared to the associated risks. The overall scientific consensus emphasises that any perceived advantages do not outweigh the well-documented dangers of heavy metal exposure.

Public Health Responses

In response to growing evidence of health risks, public health authorities around the world have implemented a range of measures to regulate or restrict the use of hazardous kohl products. Many countries have issued advisories warning consumers about the dangers of lead-containing cosmetics, particularly those marketed as traditional or imported products.

Regulatory agencies have also imposed bans or strict limits on the permissible levels of lead in cosmetic products. In several regions, the sale of kohl containing lead or other toxic substances is prohibited, and imported products are subject to inspection and testing. Despite these measures, enforcement remains a challenge, especially in informal markets where traditional kohl is widely available.

Awareness campaigns have played a crucial role in educating the public about the risks associated with kohl use. These initiatives often target communities where traditional practices are deeply rooted, emphasising the importance of using certified, lead-free alternatives. Healthcare professionals also play a key role in identifying and managing cases of heavy metal exposure linked to cosmetic use.

Overall, the issue of kohl safety highlights the need to balance cultural traditions with modern scientific understanding. While kohl remains an important cultural and cosmetic product, its use must be informed by awareness of potential health risks and adherence to safety standards.

Regulation and the Modern Cosmetic Industry

Regulatory Frameworks

The growing awareness of health risks associated with traditional kohl, particularly its potential lead content, has led to the development of strict regulatory frameworks in many parts of the world. Modern cosmetic regulations are designed to ensure product safety, protect consumers, and standardise manufacturing practices. In major global markets such as the United States, the European Union, and parts of Asia, cosmetics are subject to rigorous testing and approval processes before they can be sold.

One of the most important regulatory measures has been the prohibition or strict limitation of lead in cosmetic products. Regulatory authorities have established maximum permissible limits for heavy metals, and in many cases, lead-based eye cosmetics are outright banned. Imported products, especially those labelled as traditional or herbal, are often subjected to additional scrutiny due to the higher risk of contamination. These regulations reflect a broader shift toward evidence-based safety standards, replacing earlier practices that relied on tradition rather than scientific validation.

However, enforcement remains uneven across regions. In some developing countries and informal markets, traditional kohl products containing harmful substances continue to be sold without adequate oversight. This creates a gap between regulatory intent and real-world practice, highlighting the need for stronger global coordination and monitoring.

Industry Transformation

In response to regulatory pressures and increased consumer awareness, the cosmetic industry has undergone a significant transformation. Manufacturers have moved away from traditional formulations containing potentially toxic elements and have adopted safer, standardised ingredients. Modern kohl products are typically made using approved pigments such as carbon black and iron oxides, which provide the desired colour intensity without posing significant health risks.

The industry has also embraced dermatological testing and quality assurance processes to ensure product safety, particularly for eye-area cosmetics, which require a high level of sensitivity. Products are now designed to be hypoallergenic, non-toxic, and suitable for long-term use. This shift has helped rebuild consumer trust while maintaining the aesthetic appeal associated with traditional kohl.

At the same time, there has been a rise in branded kohl eyeliners, offered by both international and regional cosmetic companies. These products often combine traditional branding with modern formulation techniques, appealing to consumers who value cultural authenticity alongside safety and convenience. Innovations in packaging—such as retractable pencils, gel liners, and smudge-proof formulas—have further enhanced usability and broadened market appeal.

Consumer Awareness

Consumer awareness has become a central factor shaping the modern kohl market. Increased access to information through digital media, health campaigns, and product labelling has enabled consumers to make more informed choices. Awareness of the risks associated with heavy metals has led many individuals to seek out certified, laboratory-tested products rather than relying on unverified traditional preparations.

Ingredient labelling plays a crucial role in this process. Transparent disclosure of components allows consumers to identify potentially harmful substances and choose safer alternatives. Regulatory requirements in many countries mandate clear labelling, including information about allergens and prohibited ingredients, which further supports informed decision-making.

There is also a growing preference for products marketed as “natural,” “organic,” or “chemical-free.” While these terms are not always strictly defined, they reflect a broader consumer trend toward health-conscious and environmentally responsible choices. In the context of kohl, this has encouraged manufacturers to develop formulations that mimic traditional methods using safe, plant-based or mineral ingredients that comply with modern safety standards.

Overall, the intersection of regulation, industry innovation, and consumer awareness has reshaped kohl from a largely unregulated traditional substance into a modern cosmetic product that balances cultural heritage with scientific safety and global market expectations.

Kohl in the Context of Global Cosmetics History

Kohl occupies a foundational position in the history of global cosmetics, representing one of the earliest known forms of deliberate facial enhancement. Its use in Ancient Egypt and other early societies demonstrates that eye-focused beauty practices have long been central to human self-expression. The fundamental concept of defining and emphasising the eyes, first achieved through kohl, directly influenced the development of modern eye makeup, including eyeliners, mascaras, and eye shadows.

When compared with other historical cosmetics such as rouge for cheeks or white powders for skin lightening, kohl stands out for its multifunctional role. While many early cosmetics were primarily aesthetic, kohl uniquely combined beauty with perceived protective and medicinal properties. This dual function contributed to its persistence across cultures and time periods, unlike some other ancient cosmetic practices that faded due to changing social norms or health concerns.

Kohl’s enduring presence has significantly contributed to the evolution of the global beauty industry. It provided a conceptual and material foundation for modern eye cosmetics, inspiring both product design and marketing narratives. Today’s cosmetic industry continues to draw upon the historical and cultural legacy of kohl, integrating traditional aesthetics with advanced scientific formulations, thereby linking ancient practices with contemporary beauty standards.

Conclusion

Kohl has undergone a remarkable transformation from an ancient, multifunctional substance to a modern cosmetic integrated into the global beauty industry. Originating in civilisations such as Ancient Egypt, it has carried enduring cultural, religious, and aesthetic significance across regions and generations. However, its traditional formulations have also raised serious health concerns, particularly due to toxic elements like lead. A balanced understanding of kohl requires recognising both its historical value and potential risks. In contemporary contexts, informed and safe usage—through regulated, non-toxic products—ensures that kohl remains a relevant link between cultural heritage and modern scientific standards.

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