China, one of the leading economies of the world, consists of a very hard-working and dedicated population. But have you ever wondered what China looked like in ancient times? Have you ever heard that a country like China used to have a caste system? Yes, China had a caste system. Let’s dive deeper and see how this caste system became part of Chinese society. You might have heard of Confucius. Lived from 551 to 479 BCE, Confucius (Kong Fuzi or Kong Qiu) was a Chinese philosopher and political reformer. He developed a philosophy aimed at restoring peace and order to a fragmented China. He was not the one who came up with this idea of dividing people into castes. His teachings were highly significant for this nation, and so his followers came up with a system based on his beliefs.
During the Han Dynasty (202 BCE – 220 CE), scholars formalised this structure of the caste system. It was heavily inspired by Confucian ideas of a person's moral and economic utility and service to the state. However, historians resist calling ancient China's social structure a "caste system" because, unlike hereditary castes, individuals could technically move up the social ladder through education and merit. However, Confucius's emphasis on everyone knowing their place and conforming to superiors laid the groundwork for a formal occupational hierarchy. Now, let’s see how this works, but first, let’s explore if they resisted calling it a caste system, and then how they refer to this system. The scholar elite, landowners and farmers, craftsmen and artisans, and merchants and traders are the four strata of Chinese society described in ancient writings starting about the fourth century B.C. Under imperial control, the farmers supplied food, the craftsmen created practical objects, the merchants pushed luxury items, and the scholar elite, led by Confucius, oversaw the moral instruction of the populace. The merchants who sold for profit and added nothing of value to society were ranked low on the social scale because, in theory, the Confucian elite promoted simple rural values rather than a taste for luxury, which they saw as unnecessary and leading to moral degeneration (though, in reality, economic success had its obvious advantages).
The local Chinese term for this traditional social hierarchy is Sìmín (四民), which translates directly to the "Four People" or "Four Categories of People." So according to Sìmín (四民), the people were divided into four categories:
The Four Occupations (Shí Nóng Gōng Shāng):
- Shi (Scholars & Officials): Placed at the top because they used their minds and governed the state. Confucius famously advocated that the country should be led by virtuous, highly educated scholars.
- Nong (Farmers): Highly respected because they provided food to the entire population, the fundamental lifeline of the empire.
- Gong (Artisans & Craftsmen): Placed third because they created useful physical goods that would be used by the population.
- Shang (Merchants & Traders): Ranked at the bottom. According to Confucius, they were ranked the lowest because they merely traded products made by others and were seen as driven by greed and profit rather than contributing to the moral fabric of society.
The population lower in hierarchy according to the system was subject to various prejudices. They were prohibited from wearing silk, riding carriages, or publicly displaying luxury items. They experienced systemic exclusion, which prevented them from taking imperial exams, preventing their families from advancing in politics. They underwent economic extortion, which made them subject to high taxes and frequent forced "donations" to the state. They were also subject to property bans, which prohibited them from owning agricultural land to prevent them from becoming permanently wealthy. Not only this, but they underwent public shaming as they were legally classified as moral parasites and ranked lower than the poorest, illiterate peasants.
As time passed by, China underwent certain movements which eventually resulted in the abolishment of these categories. During the 1950s, the Communist Party played a huge role in seizing the land of the landlords and redistributing pieces of their land among peasants. This uprooted the position of these landlords, hence diminishing their pride and making this system senile. China also experienced a Cultural Revolution from 1966 77. During this decade, the state actively worked to vandalise the ‘Four Olds’, which, according to them, were Old Customs, Old Culture, Old Habits, and Old Ideas. This movement deeply harmed any family-based or caste-based social structures.
But here is another question: when systems have been imprinted so deeply into the social structures of a state, is it possible to get rid of them entirely? Even when the strongest trees are uprooted, the signs of their existence always stay; the depression in the soil stays. In 1958, a more nuanced version of systemic division emerged. This system did not divide people into four parts, but rather only two divisions. This system was termed the Hukou (household registration) system. This system divides the locals into agricultural (rural) and non-agricultural(urban) categories. This classification often dictates access to education, healthcare, certain lifestyle standards and employment opportunities.
Basically, the Hukou system assigns a resident to a specific area, and it determines where they can legally live and have access to public services. Subsequently, the non-agricultural population tends to have access to better educational, healthcare and employment facilities, and the agricultural population may have it harder to access equally good opportunities. This system might have been designed for better administration, and it is highly possible that this purpose is being achieved, but at the same time, it creates problems for people who undergo internal migration. While citizens are free to legally travel and work outside their registered areas, doing so without transferring their hukou is problematic in certain instances. Migrant workers, living in cities where they work but lacking a local hukou, often face major barriers to securing permanent residence, healthcare and educational facilities for their family members.
This system eventually benefits the non-agricultural category since most of the facilities and opportunities are concentrated in bigger cities, so this system carries very subtle traces of prejudice.
At the same time, it is ironic that there is a huge contrast between the classification in the Sìmín (四民) system and the hukou system. According to Confucius, the farmers were the second highest category, since they grow food and feed the nation, but in the hukou system, the agricultural population has access to limited facilities compared to the urban population.
Key Sources
- Wikipedia, "Hukou" — https://en.wikipedia.org
- China Briefing, "China's Hukou System: How Does it Impact Employers?" — https://www.china-briefing.com
- ScienceDirect Topics, "Hukou" overview — https://www.sciencedirect.com
- Wikipedia, "Land Reform Movement" — https://en.wikipedia.org
- The National Archives (UK), "The Cultural Revolution" — https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk
- History's Histories, "Han Bio Activity 3: Merchants" — http://www.historyshistories.com
- Wikipedia, "Four occupations" — https://en.wikipedia.org
- Wikipedia, "Scholar-official" — https://en.wikipedia.org
- World History Encyclopedia, "Daily Life in Ancient China" — https://www.worldhistory.org