Public interest is the aggregation of the harmonized interests of individuals together. The synchronisation of interests must be well established in society in order to avoid the conflicting state of interests. Whenever it comes to public interest, we start to think of the interest of a larger group of people living in society but we tend to forget always that the public interest has it's root beginning in the individual interests of people. We all feel that in a democracy the interests of all is assured and maintained. Can we reiterate the same without the tongue waggling in between? Absolutely not!
Since we know that there are many sections in the population of the country and of the world who have been disadvantaged of something or the other. Discussing about all of them won't be possible in a single drive. Hence, through this article, I want to elucidate on the interests of the 'females' in the society who have been wronged and deprived of their individuality since centuries. We must not forget that the contribution of a female's interest is only going to complete the chain process of public interest otherwise the whole process may get knuckled under the domino effect that starts when in any corner of the world, that injustice takes place. Read on, to again open your eyes and conscience regarding the position of women in society.
It is customary everywhere to classify the human community on the basis of sex into groups of 'men' and 'women'. We tend to forget that the difference between them is simply a biological fact of sex. The aims and objectives, desires and aspirations, duties and responsibilities, dress styles and behavioural patterns, roles and statuses of women and men are different. If we look back in the pages of history we can again get thousands of instances of they being disadvantaged. They have always raised the voice for equality. Men and women all over the world do not reflect different cultures rather they represent one way of life, one culture and heritage. This is also true in the case of Indian men and women.
The position that a women is accorded in a society reflects it's cultural richness and civilisational standards. Swami Vivekananda said, 'The country that doesn't respects it's women will not become great in future.' The degree of freedom and respectability given to women to move about and take part in public activities gives a good idea of the nature and society to which they belong. It also hints about the spirit of civilization. Status of women has always been a subject matter for sociological studies and discussions, for it mirrors about 50% of the population of any society. The women have always been subjected to discrimination, inequality and exploration. In some societies, the situation is changing but that is a growing change and times are going to bring much more reforms in this direction.
The societal principle has already been differentiated into two opposite sexes. Almost all the human society attach much importance to it. Although both the sexes have been a part of the society since ages yet the society treats men and women in different ways and patterns of behaviour. Differentiation here does not imply that one sex has a status superior over the other but in practice sex differentiation has been translated into sexual inequality.
The importance of sexual inequality is often felt at the time of the birth of a child. Often it has been seen in the societies all over the world that the parents always ask a similar question at the birth of the child- 'Is it a boy or girl? In fact, the inequality of the sexes is probably the oldest form of social inequality.
Most societies have two universal criteria for ascribing status within a stratification system: sex and age. It is a brute fact of society that in no society in the world men and women are treated alike, given the same status and guaranteed equality. We all know that there are certain rights and opportunities denied to women. A social rationale given for this discrimination is that the talents and potentials of the sexes are different in many respects. We all have been witnessing an inferior position of women in the society. This very notion is continually being infiltrated from one generation to another generation. Men have been deemed as 'providers' in society while the women are expected to take over the duties of the household. Most societies view it as 'women's work or men's work' using as a basis for sexual stereotypes. People have been classified into males and females on the basis of gender.
In almost all societies different cultural expectations have been woven around male-female differences. The following explanation highlights such expectations: 'Men should be competitive, women are supposed to be cooperative. Men can be impatient, women must have boundless patience. Men may be critical; women should always be accepting and supportive. Men can rush and be hurried; women are always supposed to have time for people, to sit and chat, to weave an effective network of mutual support and empathy. Men are expected to express anger, women should never be angry- at least they should certainly never show it. Men are supposed to gain gratification from the self-recognition of a job well done.' Many of the literary works of writers, novelists and poets have highlighted such cultural expectations about the gender roles of many societies of the past. The behaviour of men and women are subjected to different cultural definitions.
There exists complex differences between men and women. N.J. Smelser has pointed out that there are four concepts to understand these differences.
a) Biological Sex: On the basis of the biological factor of sex, human society is divided into two groups or communities everywhere. Primary physical traits such as reproductive organs, body shape and secondary physical traits such as facial hair, muscular strength etc. are helpful in making such a division or classification.
b) Gender Identity: It refers to our sexual image. Biological differences contribute to the development of gender identity which refers to the self-concepts of a person being male or female. Generally, a child learns that she is a girl or a boy between the age of 18 months and 3 years.
c) Gender Ideals: The concept of gender ideals refer to the cultural expectations woven around male and female behaviour. Gender ideals reveal what men and women are supposed to be like in a particular context.
d) Sex Roles: The concept of sex roles which represents the fourth component of sexual identity, includes division of labor, rights and responsibilities according to sex. During the early days, sex roles were clearly laid down. Men were supposed to earn a livelihood for the family when women were expected to look after the family members. In the present world, sex roles are also undergoing fast transformation.
N.J. Smelser mentions that these components usually function in a harmonious manner. For example, a biological male or a biological female are tuned to the definition of manhood or womanhood. Sometimes, biological sex may not agree with their gender identity. It is also possible that a person's gender identity may not often fit a particular gender ideal. An individual may feel comfortable as a biological male but uncomfortable behaving according to cultural expectations for men. An individual's sex roles may not often match the society's gender ideals.
What's the real difference between the sexes remains a pertinent question in our discussion of male-female relations. Heading to find an answer to the question leads to further questions such as, 'Are there any inborn differences between the sexes'? Are they really important? Are there some natural and genetically determined qualities which do not permit any change of sex roles?
These questions have been attempted by the sociologists and they have tried to explain it with the help of some relevant evidences. Let us go into greater details of these three kinds of evidences.
a) Anatomical Differences: The differences are apparent in the physical structure and appearance of the sexes. Differences found in the reproductive system of men and women. Men develop testes and women ovaries and these are called primary sex characteristics. Due to the impact of hormonal changes at the onset of puberty, secondary sexual characteristics such as breasts and body hair in females, deeper voice and body hair in men. Women get pregnant and suckle the child. The society confers on the women a lot of biological responsibility and restrictions. Features like muscular strength, body fat and amount of body hair also reveal that men are physically more powerful than women. Generally, males dominate over females by force.
b) Genetic Differences: Differences in the sexes are based on differences in the make up of sex chromosomes. Females have similar chromosomes ( XX ) and males have different chromosomes ( XY ). Scientists are still into studies to know whether their difference affects the personalities or abilities of the sexes. The death rate of men is found to be higher than women as women are regarded more resistant than men to most diseases.
c) Hormonal Differences: A hormone is a chemical substance that is secreted by the glands in the body. It is known that hormones can influence both physical development and forms of behavior. Both men and women have 'male' as well as 'female hormone'; but the proportion of male hormone is greater in men and the proportion of female hormone is greater in women. Whether the hormones completely determine the characteristic male and female behavior in a question is still debated. The natural and social scientists are of the opinion today that hormonal differences probably do have some influence on the behavior of men and women but this influence is a minor one.
The Classic Study Conducted by Margaret Mead:
Mead's studies were completed in 1935, relating to three New Guinea Tribes.
a) The Arapesh Tribe: In this tribe, Mead found that men and women conformed to a personality type. Individuals of both the sexes are gentle, sober, passive and emotionally very warm. Both of them have identical sex drives and both were responsible for child care.
b) The Mundugumor Tribe: Tribes of this group are head hunting and both men and women are expected to be violent and aggressive. Both men and women act in ways which we would call predominantly 'masculine'. Mundugumor women rarely showed what is known as 'maternal instinct' common to women everywhere.
c) The Tchambuli Tribe: Sex roles in this community differed from the first two tribes. The women were domineering and energetic and wore no ornaments. The men, on the other hand, are artistic, gossipy, expressive and looked after children.
The study of these communities made Mead conclude that 'Gender traits of masculinity and feminity have no necessary connection to biological sex.'
Division of labour on the basis of sex has been a universal feature of the human society. The division of labour is rigid in ancient and traditional societies. Men were generally given tasks which required physical strength while women were expected to remain at home.
American anthropologist George P. Murdock once studied in 1935 that 224 traditional pre-industrial non-literate societies in an effort to discover regularities in the sexual division of labour.' In these societies warfare, metal working, hunting and trapping, fishing, and trade are predominantly male activities. Cooking, the manufacture and repair of clothing, pottery making, and fire making and tending are predominantly female activities. Agriculture, on the contrary, which includes the preparation, planting, and cultivation of soil, is an activity shared almost equally by the two sexes.' There are cross-cultural variations in division of labour by sex. Gender roles are not necessarily innate. Gender roles are not wholly determined by a society's relationship to it's environment. Generally, it has been seen that women specialize in household tasks and men in tasks that take them outside home. Gender roles change as culture adapts to new environmental and social conditions. The impact of technology has made the modern societies demand more involvement of women in a broader range of tasks.
The great Industrial Revolution and the consequent industrialisation opened the doors of employment for women. Women's increasing involvement in paid labour force has led to a number of social consequences such as:-
The belief that women represent the weaker sex has been there since a long time. The belief continues even today in the modern societies. They are not allowed to take strenuous tasks. Many of the female sports have not been included in the Olympic Games. There have been laws in many countries restricting women from taking up some of professions. India also has laws preventing women from taking up activities like mining or driving heavy trucks. Contrary to these beliefs, the bearing of heavy burdens is often considered a woman's job in several traditional societies. For example, the African tribes consider it unsuitable for a man to labour in an agricultural field. In extremely traditional societies, men are entitled to beat their wives and deny food to them for some time and drive them away from the house if they disobey the order. In the western world, the concept that a female is a delicate creature and requires protection and assistance was developed particularly among the upper-classes in the 12th century Europe. Traces of this medieval concept are still found in the western societies.
In India, Manu the author of Manav Dharmashastra said that 'women must be carefully guarded at all stages in their lives.' Although womans are glorified in India but the incessant foreign invasions on India has further upheld the view of Manu. In most of the civilized societies of the world, there exists a general belief that males are relatively aggressive and dominant while females are assumed to be weak and submissive. The socialist states of Eastern Europe and Asia took some formal attempts to equalize the statuses of men and women. Russia is very ahead in the race by minimizing the difference of sex roles which can be further proved with the presence of facts such as the 75% of women in Russia are doctors and some 42% are scientists. It could be said that male-dominance is the norm everywhere, although there are many societies whose sex-role arrangements are unlike our own. It seems unlikely to equalise the male-female roles by means of legislations. Societies may struggle to minimize the difference between male-female roles but establishing absolute equality between the two is almost an impossibility.
In modern societies, gender and age interact to determine the roles open to a person throughout life. Before puberty, boys and girls everywhere normally tend to associate in sex-segregated peer groups. The influence of different roles-behaviours also affect the socialization of boys and girls. For example, boys tend to play outside the home more than girls do. These patterns are changing at different rates in different social classes. It is through socialisation that men and women come to know about their gender roles, that is, 'feminine roles' and 'masculine roles'. Sex roles are not inborn, but learnt. The status of a male is expected to follow masculine behaviour and if they are female, they will be trained for feminine behaviour. Let's consider the role of family, schools, the media in the sex-role socialization of new born individuals.
It is universally observed fact that males and females are constantly assigned two different social roles. N.J. Smelser points out that there are 'boy' activities and 'girl' activities. The unalterable factor of sex cannot satisfactorily explain the sex-role differentiation. There are many perspectives on sex-role differentiation namely,
a) Functionalist Perspective: It maintains that sex-role differentiation was highly functional in traditional and pre-industrial societies, for men and women were to play different roles. Though this division of labour need not necessarily take place along the sex lines, it could also be done on the basis of sexual differences. The functionalists also maintain that gender differentiation has contributed to overall social stability. Talcott Parsons and Robert Bales have suggested a positive function of sex-role differentiation. The father assumes the 'instrumental role', which focuses on the relationship between the family and the outside world. The mother assumes the 'expressive role' which focuses on relationships within the family.
The functionalists have thus concluded that 'the male's instrument role requires that he be dominant and competent; the female's expressive role requires that she be passive and nurturant. The family unit functions more effectively than it would if the roles were not so sharply defined.'
b) Conflict Perspective: They argue that the relationship between males and females has been one of unequal power, with men in a dominant position over women. Conflict theorists always see gender differences as a reflection of the subjugation of one group ( women ) by another group ( men ). Pogrebin has suggested two crucial messages of gender stereotypes - 'boys are better' and 'girls are meant to be mothers'.
B.B. Polk describes the 'conflicting cultures approach to gender differences, observes that masculine values have higher status and constitute the dominant and visible cultures of the society. They......provide the standard for adulthood and normality.' According to this view, women are oppressed because they constitute an alternative subculture which deviates from the prevailing masculine value system.' Helen Hacker has shown that both groups are at a disadvantage as a result of status ascribed to them on the unalterable grounds of sex. Randall Collins mentions that, 'Since the cultural arrangements of any society always reflect the interests of the dominant group,sex roles continue to reinforce the pattern of male dominance.
In a nutshell, the perspectives agree on the point that existing sex roles are primarily social in origin and not biological.
Inequality exists almost on all lines such as social, economic, racial, ethnic, and so on. Sexual inequality is also one of such inequalities. These inequalities are often justified by one or the other kind of ideology. Sexism is an ideology which is used by men to victimise women.
'Sexism is the ideology that one sex is superior to the other. The term is generally used to refer to male prejudice and discrimination against women.' - Richard Schaefer.
It is the unfair discrimination on the basis of sex. It is not always done openly but secretly, silently and in an undeclared manner. It reflects the subordinated position of women in societies rather it justifys the discrimination based on biological fact. It leads to the exclusion of statuses of women from men. Sexist attitudes also tend to 'objectify' women, which means they treat women as objects of sex.
Institutional discrimination refers to the 'denial of opportunities and equal rights to individuals or groups which result from the normal operations of a society.' Hence, women suffer from institutional sexism too. The major institutions of our society such as - armed forces, large business establishments, police force, courts, the media, transport system, heavy industries etc. are controlled by men. These institutions in their normal day-to-day operations often carry out discrimination against women and perpetuate sexism. The media or the police officials in India are examples where still the females are cheated.
Barbara Bovee Polk in 1974 has stated in a study that men in their own interest to maintain power and privilege over women, are practising sex differentiation. It is indeed a power game in which men want to establish their supremacy over women.
He writes, 'power over women in personal relationships gives men what they want, whether that be sex, smiles, chores, admiration, increased leisure, or control itself. Men occupy and actively exclude women from positions of economic and political power in society. These positions give men a heavily disproportionate share of the rewards of society, especially economic rewards.'
Sandra and Daryl Bem's views deserve mention here, '......when a boy is born, it is difficult to predict what he will be doing twenty-five years later. We cannot say, whether he will be an artist or a doctor or a college professor, because he will be permitted to develop and fulfil his own identity. But if the new born child is a girl, we can predict with almost complete certainity how she will be spending her time twenty-five years later. Her individuality does not have to be considered rather it is irrelevant discussing as per the society.
Men and women are born equal and so should be treated. There should be no room for sexual discrimination. Treating them as a secondary sex or an inferior sex is not fair. The duties of women should always be coupled with her rights. Providing them with all these requires powerful advocacy and justification of views called 'Feminism'. A social movement launched in support of it can be regarded as 'feminist movement' or women's liberation movement.
N. Abercrombie states that, 'Feminism is a doctrine suggesting that women are systematically disadvantaged in modern society and advocating equal opportunities for men and women.'
It is also referred as a sociopolitical theory and practice which aims to free all women from male supremacy and exploitation. The feminist movement and the associated breakdown of traditional norms and the attainment of economic independence by women. In the West today, feminism having achieved its original objectives, has become more of a psychological state - a constellation of certain attitudes held by individual women than a social movement. It remains a social movement in it's traditional form in certain currently industrializing nations, particularly those in which women have traditionally held a subordinate position.
The First Wave of Feminism:- As a movement, it has its origin in the 18th century England which sought to achieve gender equality with the assertion of rights to women. They got voting rights in 1920 in America and in 1928 in England. Initially, they advocated a liberal outlook heading to demand voting rights, education and right to join a profession.
The feminist movement had varied purposes at different places. In Africa, it's purpose was to fight for the removal of the practice of paying heavy bride-price. In Middle East, the movement aims to secure freedom for the dressing patterns. In Western Europe, these feminists are busy protesting about the misinterpretation of women in society. In India, the fight is for social freedom and equal social status.
In connection with the feminist campaign, Barbara Bovee Palk spoke of some five basic approaches which should be noted:
The status of the Indian woman has radically changed since independence. Structural and cultural changes in various dimensions have contributed to that change. Exploitation of women has been reduced. Greater freedom and better orientation were provided to the women's organisations to pursue their interests. Researches, national policies and programmes focusing women are regularly being launched. Commissions have also been appointed to cater the demands of rising female sector. UNESCO celebrated 'International Women's Year' in 1975 to create awareness about the rights of women. The improvement in the status of Indian women since independence can be analysed in the light of the major changes that have taken place in areas such as legislations, education, economic and employment sector, political participation and awareness of their rights.
1) Constitution and Legislation in Support of Women's Cause:
The constitution of India does not discriminate between men and women. All the men and women are entitled to equality. Furthermore, it provides protection to women against exploitation and equality of women. It also guarantees them the voting rights and they should be in no way treated as secondary citizens.
2) Social Legislations Safeguarding Women's Interests:
3) Women in the Field of Education:
After independence, women of India took to education in a relatively larger number. This reduced the gap between the literacy rates between male and female. Benefits like scholarship, hostel facility are being given to women who go for higher education. The National Educational Policy that was introduced way back in 1986 has been in favour of empowering woman through education. It also gave a call to remove the gender prejudices through the promotion of women study centres. In many towns and cities, educational institutions meant only for female children have been established like the Isabella Thorburn College in Lucknow. Girls have outperformed men in studies which again proves that securing education is not the monopoly of the male. The country has also established many such women universities in the country such as Mother Teresa University for Women ( Tamil Nadu ), Women's University ( Karnataka and in Poona ). They are being admitted to engineering and medical colleges. The females have now realized the social significance of education and hence most of them now want to develop their educational career.
4) Women in the Economic and Employment Fields:
In the 'employment market', they are giving a tough competition to the menfolk. They are increasingly coming out of the four walls of the household to become workers. They are choosing professions such as teachers, professors, clerks, judges, managers and typists etc. In the urban areas again, the women are choosing different occupations with unprecedented frankness. They are being recruited to the three wings of the armed forces - military, air force and naval force. The white collar workers are on increase since 1970s. Srinavas, a renowned sociologist remarked at this change that, 'it is nothing short of a revolution.'
5) Awareness of Women Regarding their Rights:
Earlier, womans of the rural areas or those who were uneducated had no consciousness of their rights. Prof Ram Ahuja describes that the level of awareness of rights by women depend upon the following four aspects:
Woman's are not being identified as independent individuals but only as daughters, wives, mothers or as family members.
Bringing about more and more legislations to ensure better opportunities to grant more rights and concessions, is of no benefit unless there is a basic change in the people's attitude towards women and women's role in society.
The erosion of traditional values, increasing criminal tendencies in society, poor enforcement of legal provisions, excessive depression and others have contributed to greater atrocities in society.
Meaning of the Concept of Empowerment of Women - The term 'empowerment of women' has become popular especially after 1980s. It refers to the process of strengthening the hands of women who have been suffering from various disabilities, inequalities and gender discrimination. The term 'empowerment of women' refers to the process of providing power to woman to become free from the control of others, that is, to assume power to control her own life and to determine her own conditions.
Historically, women have been regarded as constituting a weaker section. They have often been treated as secondary grade citizens or they have been pictured as home-makers busy in household chores. The quest for equality has always been pursued by women. Unequal treatment on the basis of sex is what that developed into gender discrimination. Further, the United Nations Declaration of 1975 compelled the national governments to shift their emphasis on women's programmes from welfare to development. The Third Women's World Congress was held in Kenya in 1985 to support the cause of women empowerment. The Fourth World Conference on Women held in China in 1995 unanimously passed a resolution on gender equality. The Government of India also declared the year 2001 as the 'Year of Women's Empowerment.'
a) Obtaining greater political participation of women. It was also recommended that some power positions should be reserved for women at the block and village level bureaucracy. There should be income generating schemes for women in line to extend financial security to them. Increasing literacy of females to garner self-reliance in females. The 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act has made an effort to give some special powers to women in all the three tiers of Panchayati Raj.
Women cannot be empowered in a magical manner. It is not an automatic or a spontaneous process but requires deliberate and consistent efforts. It is through the combined and coordinated efforts of the Government, people and women only, the task can be fulfilled. Women are empowered through the woman emancipation movement, education, communication, media, political parties, and general awakening.
Acknowledging Women's rights, giving them the freedom to take decisions and make choices, providing them the access to education and employment and better opportunities for political participation.
Human rights are those basic rights which everyone inherits the moment one is conceived in the mother's womb. Human rights include the following rights such as, the right to life, the right to health, the right to education and the right to be free. These are natural and inalienable rights. They are indivisible and interdependent.
The philosophy of human right became popular in the 20th century and the issue of gender equality and equal rights for women assumed importance only after 1970s. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights contains several articles mandating equality and non-discrimination on the grounds of sex.
The Constitution of India in it's attempt to provide equal rights and opportunities to women, and to ensure protection and justice has made the following provisions:-
What will happen to the status of Indian women in the near future? Will they become free from the problems with which they suffered for centuries? Can we expect better status and brighter prospects for our women in the years to come? Will they be able to lead a free and independent life as their counterparts do in the West? Or, whether their status is going to deteriorate further in future? Will they attain equality with their menfolk? These are some of the questions currently being discussed in connection with the status of Indian women. On the basis of status-quo, some observations and broad generalisations could be made regarding this issue.
Women in India are not yet equal to men. There is no legal or constitutional barrier to equality. There is only the social barrier. Women in India are more after a 'respectable' and 'meaningful' social status which is free from all sorts of exploitation. There is no urge in them to outsmart men. They want their interests to be protected and problems solved. As long as the problems of women remain as 'women's problems' and not as 'societal problems', so long, attempts at the solution of these problems do not get the required speed. Indian women expect a change in the attitude of men towards them and their status. On the contrary, they expect greater freedom, better education, self-dependence, decent jobs, a proper treatment of women by menfolk, and a socio-economic environment free from all types of exploitation. Our attempts to provide such a type of socio-economic environment to women will definitely influence their social status and the socio-economic conditions in the days to come.
Without outlining the common good of females in our society, the concept of public interest as a whole can never be infiltrated out. Hence, we all must take an oath on God to always stand by the females of our society and be the part of the revolution which is yet to come.
End Notes: