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1. Introduction

The human pursuit of energy has always mirrored our ambition as a species. From the harnessing of fire to the mastery of electricity, each leap has redefined civilization. Yet, as the twenty-first century progresses, humanity faces an existential duality: the demand for more energy to fuel economic growth and the urgent imperative to reduce carbon emissions that threaten planetary stability. Amid this delicate balance, nuclear fusion has emerged as the ultimate dream,  a source of energy as vast and clean as the stars themselves. India, a nation that is home to one-sixth of humanity, stands at a critical juncture in its energy journey. The country’s population, now surpassing 1.4 billion, continues to grow in both size and aspirations. Industrialization, urbanization, and rising living standards have translated into skyrocketing electricity demand. According to projections by the International Energy Agency (IEA), India’s power consumption is expected to more than double by 2040, making it one of the fastest-growing energy markets in the world. While coal still dominates the Indian energy basket, the government’s climate pledges, especially the commitment to reach net zero by 2070, demand a radical transition toward clean and sustainable sources. It is against this backdrop that the Institute for Plasma Research (IPR) in Gandhinagar has put forth a detailed roadmap for India’s fusion energy aspirations. As reported in The Hindu on September 25, 2025, this roadmap does more than outline technological milestones; it sets the stage for India to join the select club of nations daring to replicate the Sun’s power on Earth. At the heart of the proposal lies the commitment to magnetic confinement fusion (MCF) using Tokamak reactors, doughnut-shaped machines that have become the global standard for plasma confinement.

The roadmap is not merely a technical blueprint; it is a statement of intent. It acknowledges that while India has achieved remarkable progress in renewable energy deployment, there remain fundamental gaps in providing reliable, round-the-clock power without relying on fossil fuels. Solar and wind are intermittent, while hydropower is geographically constrained, and nuclear fission remains controversial due to safety and waste disposal challenges. Fusion, if achieved, promises to sidestep these limitations: virtually limitless fuel supply from deuterium in seawater and lithium reserves, no carbon emissions, and minimal long-lived radioactive waste. The Gandhinagar proposal must also be seen in the larger global context. Across the world, the race toward fusion has accelerated, with projects like ITER in France, SPARC in the United States, and EAST in China achieving major milestones. India’s participation in ITER as one of its seven core partners has already positioned the country as a credible player. But the roadmap now signals India’s intent to move beyond being just a collaborator to becoming a leader with indigenous capabilities. In many ways, this pursuit is more than scientific; it is symbolic. Fusion energy, often described as “the holy grail of physics,” is a technological frontier that blends cutting-edge science with geopolitical significance. Nations that master fusion will not only ensure their energy independence but also secure a decisive advantage in global energy and climate negotiations. For India, the roadmap from Gandhinagar is both a leap of faith and a calculated stride, a recognition that the energy of tomorrow cannot be left for others to define.

2. The Science of Fusion Energy

2.1 Fusion vs. Fission – A Tale of Two Reactions

To appreciate the significance of India’s fusion roadmap, it is essential to distinguish fusion from the nuclear energy that currently operates in power plants worldwide. Conventional nuclear power is based on fission, the splitting of heavy atoms such as uranium-235 or plutonium-239 into lighter nuclei. This process releases enormous energy, but also leaves behind long-lived radioactive waste, often requiring thousands of years of secure storage. Furthermore, the risks of accidents, as seen in Chernobyl (1986) and Fukushima (2011), have made nuclear fission a controversial choice, despite its low-carbon credentials. Fusion, by contrast, is the exact opposite process. Instead of splitting heavy nuclei, it involves fusing light nuclei, primarily isotopes of hydrogen, deuterium, and tritium, into helium. This reaction releases energy not only because of Einstein’s famous equation, but also because the resulting helium atom has slightly less mass than the combined hydrogen nuclei. This tiny difference is liberated as a vast amount of energy. Unlike fission, the by-products of fusion are largely harmless, and the fuel is abundantly available: deuterium can be extracted from seawater, and tritium can be bred from lithium, a resource in which India holds significant reserves. The contrast is stark: fission is like splitting a log of wood to release energy, while fusion is like striking two small twigs together to produce a sun-like blaze. The latter promises a future where the dangers of radioactive waste and catastrophic meltdowns are minimized.

2.2 The Conditions for Fusion – Chasing the Sun on Earth

If fusion is so desirable, why has humanity not mastered it yet? The answer lies in the extreme conditions required. The Sun achieves fusion effortlessly because its immense gravitational pressure confines hydrogen nuclei tightly enough for them to overcome their natural repulsion and fuse. On Earth, we lack such gravitational compression, so scientists must compensate by heating hydrogen plasma to unimaginable temperatures often exceeding 100 million degrees Celsius, more than ten times hotter than the core of the Sun. But temperature alone is not enough. The plasma, a seething soup of charged particles, must also be confined long enough for collisions and fusion reactions to occur. This is where advanced reactor designs come into play. Plasma confinement is achieved primarily through two approaches:

  1. Magnetic Confinement Fusion (MCF): Here, powerful magnetic fields hold plasma in place, preventing it from touching the reactor walls. The Tokamak, a doughnut-shaped device invented in the Soviet Union in the 1950s, remains the most successful MCF design to date. India’s SST-1 and ITER’s experimental machine both fall in this category.
  2. Inertial Confinement Fusion (ICF): In this approach, tiny pellets of fuel are bombarded with intense laser beams or ion beams. The outer shell of the pellet explodes, compressing the core inward with sufficient force to trigger fusion. Facilities like the National Ignition Facility (NIF) in the United States are leaders in this domain.

India’s roadmap focuses on magnetic confinement, reflecting decades of domestic expertise with Tokamak reactors.

2.3 The Triple Product – A Measure of Success

Fusion scientists often speak of the “triple product,” the product of plasma temperature, density, and confinement time. This metric determines whether a fusion reaction can reach the so-called “breakeven point” (Q=1), where the energy produced equals the energy invested in heating the plasma. The holy grail is to achieve a net energy gain (Q>1), ideally Q=10 or higher, where ten times more energy is released than consumed. So far, experimental reactors have achieved significant milestones but have yet to cross the commercial threshold. For example, the Joint European Torus (JET) in the UK produced 59 megajoules of energy in a five-second burst in 2022, while the EAST Tokamak in China has held plasma for over 1,000 seconds. Each of these achievements pushes humanity closer to the breakeven point, but sustained, commercially viable fusion remains elusive.

2.4 The Fuel Cycle – Deuterium, Tritium, and Beyond

At the heart of fusion lies the choice of fuel. The most promising reaction involves fusing deuterium (D) and tritium (T) to produce helium and a high-energy neutron. Deuterium is abundant, with one in every 6,500 hydrogen atoms in seawater being deuterium, making it virtually limitless. Tritium, however, is scarce in nature, as it is radioactive with a half-life of about 12 years. To address this, future reactors must breed tritium within their walls using lithium-based blankets, a challenge that India’s roadmap recognizes as crucial. Looking further ahead, scientists also explore advanced fuels such as deuterium, helium-3, or proton-boron reactions, which could eliminate neutron production, making fusion even cleaner. However, these require even higher temperatures and remain a distant goal.

2.5 Why Fusion is Different from Other Energy Sources

Fusion stands apart from other energy technologies because it combines abundance with sustainability. Unlike fossil fuels, it does not emit greenhouse gases. Unlike renewables, it is not intermittent or dependent on geography. Unlike fission, it does not produce high-level waste or pose a meltdown risk. Theoretically, one liter of seawater could provide as much deuterium as to power a household for years. Yet, the barriers are formidable. Achieving and sustaining fusion conditions requires precision engineering at the edge of human capability: superconducting magnets, advanced materials resistant to neutron bombardment, and sophisticated plasma control systems. Fusion is not just an energy project; it is a convergence of physics, engineering, material science, and computational modeling on an unprecedented scale.

3. India’s Fusion Research Journey

3.1 Early Foundations – The Birth of Plasma Research in India

India’s tryst with fusion research began in the late 1970s, when the global scientific community was brimming with optimism about controlled nuclear fusion. In 1986, the Indian government formally established the Institute for Plasma Research (IPR) in Gandhinagar, Gujarat, as the nodal center for fusion and plasma science. The timing was significant: just a year earlier, the Chernobyl disaster had shaken public confidence in fission-based nuclear power, and scientists worldwide were doubling down on fusion as a cleaner alternative. The establishment of IPR signaled India’s determination to be part of this cutting-edge frontier. Unlike many other nations that depended heavily on foreign collaborations, India chose the path of indigenous development, albeit with international exposure and learning. This dual strategy of self-reliance combined with global participation has remained the hallmark of India’s fusion journey.

3.2 The ADITYA Tokamak – India’s First Step

The first major milestone came in 1989, when India commissioned ADITYA, the country’s first Tokamak reactor. Though modest in scale compared to international projects, ADITYA was a technological marvel for a developing nation at the time. It allowed Indian scientists to gain hands-on experience in creating, confining, and studying plasma,  the essential stepping stone for any future fusion program. ADITYA not only trained a generation of Indian plasma physicists but also demonstrated India’s ability to design and operate complex magnetic confinement systems. It became a testbed for developing diagnostic tools, control systems, and theoretical models of plasma behavior. Even decades later, ADITYA continues to serve as a research facility, upgraded periodically to test new plasma control techniques.

3.3 SST-1 – The Superconducting Ambition

Building on ADITYA’s success, India embarked on an even more ambitious project: the SST-1 (Steady-State Superconducting Tokamak). Commissioned in the early 2000s at IPR Gandhinagar, SST-1 was among the first Tokamaks in the world to use superconducting magnets, a feature essential for sustaining long-duration plasma discharges. The development of SST-1 was not without challenges. Early attempts faced delays, technical hurdles, and budgetary constraints. Nevertheless, SST-1 represented a leap forward, pushing Indian engineers into new domains of cryogenics, superconductivity, and advanced plasma diagnostics. By 2013, SST-1 had achieved stable plasma operations, marking a significant scientific victory for India. Perhaps more importantly, SST-1 established India’s credibility in the global fusion community. It demonstrated that India could contribute not just labor and components but also original research and design innovations.

3.4 India and ITER – Joining the Global Megaproject

A watershed moment came in 2005, when India became the seventh full partner in the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) project in Cadarache, France. ITER, often described as the most ambitious scientific collaboration since the International Space Station, brings together the European Union, the United States, Russia, China, Japan, South Korea, and India to build the world’s largest Tokamak.

India’s contribution to ITER is significant, amounting to nearly 9% of the project’s in-kind share. Through its domestic agency ITER-India, headquartered in Gandhinagar, the country has taken responsibility for delivering critical components such as:

  • The cryostat base and segments, which form the outermost structure of the reactor.
  • Cooling water systems are vital for handling the extreme heat loads generated by plasma operations.
  • Diagnostic systems for plasma monitoring and control.

Participation in ITER has given Indian scientists and industries exposure to global best practices, advanced technologies, and international collaborations. It has also created a skilled workforce and industrial ecosystem capable of handling the precision engineering demands of fusion research.

3.5 Toward a National Roadmap – The Gandhinagar Proposal

While participation in ITER is invaluable, India has also recognized the need to develop an indigenous pathway toward fusion power. This realization forms the backbone of the roadmap proposed by IPR Gandhinagar in 2025, as reported in The Hindu. The roadmap envisions a three-tiered strategy:

  1. Near-Term Goals: Strengthening domestic research facilities like SST-1 and developing a Fusion Test Facility (FTF) that can bridge the gap between experimental physics and power plant design.
  2. Medium-Term Goals: Building a Demonstration (DEMO) reactor, capable of generating net energy gain and testing tritium breeding technologies on a pilot scale.
  3. Long-Term Goals: Establishing commercial-scale fusion power plants integrated into India’s national grid, potentially by mid-century.

The roadmap also emphasizes collaboration with premier research institutes, such as the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) and Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs), as well as industry partnerships to manufacture high-precision components.

What makes the proposal particularly significant is its timing. With global momentum building around fusion from the WEST Tokamak’s 22-minute plasma in France to private sector breakthroughs in the United States and India, it is ensuring it does not miss the bus. The Gandhinagar roadmap signals a shift from being a participant in global fusion experiments to being a driver of its own fusion destiny.

3.6 Symbolism Beyond Science

India’s fusion research journey is not just about technology; it carries symbolic weight. For a nation that has long strived for self-reliance in strategic sectors, from nuclear power to space exploration, fusion represents the next frontier of scientific sovereignty. Moreover, as a developing country grappling with both rising energy demands and climate vulnerability, India’s success in fusion would resonate globally, offering a template for clean energy transitions in the Global South.

4. The WEST Tokamak Breakthrough

The global race toward fusion energy is marked by collaborative milestones, each one offering technical insights and strategic lessons for emerging players. Among the most significant recent achievements is the breakthrough at the French fusion device WEST (Tungsten Environment in Steady-State Tokamak), operated by the French Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission (CEA) in collaboration with EUROfusion. WEST successfully demonstrated stable plasma operations under conditions that closely resemble those expected in future DEMO and commercial reactors. For India, which is charting its fusion roadmap through the STEP-India Project, WEST’s results provide valuable guidance on engineering design, plasma-material interactions, and the importance of international synergy.

4.1 Tungsten as a Plasma-Facing Material

At the heart of WEST’s breakthrough is the extensive use of tungsten as the primary plasma-facing material. Tungsten’s high melting point, low sputtering rate, and resistance to radiation damage make it a leading candidate for divertors in future reactors. India, through its contribution to ITER, has already been involved in testing and fabricating high-heat-flux components, including tungsten-coated and actively cooled divertor elements. The success of WEST validates India’s decision to invest in tungsten-based technologies and signals the need to accelerate domestic R&D on tungsten supply chains, fabrication methods, and heat removal systems.

4.2 Achieving Steady-State Operation

One of the persistent challenges of tokamak research is achieving a steady-state plasma without disruptions. WEST’s demonstration of long-pulse operation under ITER-like conditions represents a key milestone toward reactor-relevant plasmas. For India, this highlights the importance of building robust plasma control systems, enhancing real-time feedback algorithms, and integrating superconducting magnets capable of sustaining prolonged pulses. Lessons from WEST reinforce that India must go beyond proof-of-concept devices and prioritize designs aimed at stability, reliability, and operational endurance.

4.3 Tritium Breeding and Fuel Cycle Readiness

While WEST is not a tritium-breeding testbed, its operational conditions provide indirect insights into fuel cycle challenges, especially in relation to plasma-facing materials and heat exhaust management. India’s strategy for self-sufficiency in tritium, through lithium blanket modules and solid breeder technologies, can draw from WEST’s results in handling high heat fluxes and neutron fluxes indirectly simulated through plasma conditions. The coupling of tungsten divertors with lithium breeder blankets will remain a critical junction in India’s roadmap, and WEST has shown that tungsten’s resilience can support this integration.

4.4 Strategic Value of International Collaboration

WEST’s breakthrough was not the product of an isolated national effort; it was achieved through EUROfusion’s coordinated research, pooling expertise across member states. For India, which has long-standing ties with ITER, this serves as a reminder that fusion is not a zero-sum competition but a global cooperative mission. The STEP-India Project can benefit immensely from structured partnerships with Europe, the U.S., and East Asia by sharing operational data, co-developing materials research, and exchanging young researchers in a fusion-focused talent pipeline.

4.5 Translating WEST to India’s Roadmap

The lesson from WEST is clear: breakthroughs are not isolated technical triumphs but stepping stones in a carefully staged roadmap toward commercialization. For India, this means adopting a dual-track strategy, continuing contributions to ITER while simultaneously building indigenous devices capable of DEMO-level performance. WEST demonstrates that investment in plasma-facing technologies, long-pulse operation, and collaborative frameworks yields tangible results. Integrating these lessons into the STEP-India Project will ensure that India does not reinvent the wheel but accelerates its trajectory by learning from global successes.

5. Technological Challenges

The pursuit of fusion energy is not simply a matter of engineering bigger machines or investing more funds; it is fundamentally about overcoming some of the hardest scientific and technological challenges humanity has ever faced. India’s roadmap, like those of other global players, must confront these barriers head-on. Each milestone from stabilizing plasma to scaling reactors for grid integration defines the feasibility of fusion as a real-world energy source.

5.1 Plasma Stability – Taming the Unpredictable Core

The heart of a tokamak is its plasma, a superheated soup of charged particles swirling at temperatures exceeding 100 million degrees Celsius. Controlling such a system is akin to holding the sun in a magnetic cage. Even small instabilities known as disruptions can release immense bursts of energy, damaging reactor walls and halting operations. Advanced control systems, including magnetic field shaping, real-time plasma monitoring, and machine learning-based predictive models, are being developed worldwide to mitigate these instabilities. For India, enhancing the control capabilities of SST-1 and designing robust stabilization protocols for future reactors will be essential. Achieving plasma stability is not just about sustaining reactions but ensuring the safety and longevity of fusion devices.

5.2 Energy Gain (Q > 1) – Breaking the Barrier

One of the defining milestones in fusion research is achieving a net energy gain, where the energy produced by fusion reactions exceeds the energy required to sustain them. This ratio, denoted as Q, is the holy grail of fusion science. While experimental devices like JET in the UK have achieved Q values close to 1, ITER aims for Q = 10, producing ten times the energy input. For India, aligning its roadmap with this goal means pushing beyond plasma confinement experiments to devices capable of demonstrating high gain. Indigenous innovations in superconducting magnets, plasma heating systems, and energy extraction technologies will determine how quickly India can move from experimental to pre-commercial stages.

5.3 Tritium Breeding – Fueling the Future

Fusion reactions primarily rely on deuterium and tritium, isotopes of hydrogen. While deuterium is abundant in seawater, tritium is scarce and radioactive, making it impractical to depend on an external supply. To close the fuel cycle, reactors must be equipped with “breeding blankets” containing lithium. When bombarded by high-energy neutrons from fusion reactions, lithium can generate tritium, providing a self-sustaining fuel source. India has a unique advantage in this field, having advanced lithium research programs tied to its nuclear sector. Demonstrating efficient tritium breeding will not only secure India’s fuel independence but also establish its leadership in one of the most critical aspects of fusion energy systems.

5.4 Neutron Damage – Building Materials for the Stars

Fusion reactors unleash a torrent of high-energy neutrons that bombard reactor walls and internal components. Over time, this neutron radiation can cause materials to become brittle, swell, and lose their mechanical integrity. Designing radiation-resistant alloys and advanced composites is therefore one of the most urgent challenges. India has already initiated collaborations in developing such materials under its nuclear materials program. Advanced steels, tungsten alloys, and silicon carbide composites are being tested for resilience. Success in this area will determine the operational lifespan of reactors and their economic viability. Without breakthroughs in materials science, even the most efficient fusion devices would remain impractical.

5.5 Scaling to Power Plants – From Labs to Grids

Even if plasma confinement, energy gain, and material resilience are achieved, the leap from experimental facilities to full-scale power plants presents another frontier. Tokamaks like ITER are essentially giant laboratories not yet optimized for continuous electricity production. Commercial power plants must operate reliably for decades, integrate with national grids, and compete economically with other energy sources. India’s roadmap must therefore balance laboratory research with pilot-scale demonstration reactors that address power conversion, grid integration, and maintenance cycles. The transition from SST-1 to DEMO-class reactors will test India’s ability to move from science to industry.

Integrating the Challenges into India’s Roadmap

Each of these challenges, plasma stability, energy gain, tritium breeding, neutron resilience, and large-scale deployment, is not an isolated hurdle but an interconnected milestone. India’s strategy must integrate them into a cohesive research and development ecosystem. Strengthening indigenous capacity in advanced materials, AI-driven plasma control, and fuel-cycle technologies will ensure that the country does not merely follow but actively shape the future of fusion energy. In this sense, technological challenges are not deterrents; they are stepping stones toward India’s energy sovereignty.

6. Policy, Economics, and Energy Security

While fusion technology is primarily a scientific pursuit, its eventual deployment will depend heavily on policy frameworks, economic feasibility, and its strategic role in India’s energy security. Unlike conventional energy systems, fusion requires decades of sustained investment before any commercial payoff is visible. Thus, India’s fusion roadmap cannot be limited to laboratories; it must also embed itself in national energy planning, economic strategy, and geopolitical foresight.

6.1 Energy Demand in India – The Urgency for New Solutions

India is on the cusp of an energy transformation. With a population projected to exceed 1.6 billion by 2040, the nation’s electricity demand is expected to more than double within the next two decades. Urbanization, industrial growth, and the rise of electric mobility are accelerating consumption at an unprecedented pace. Currently, coal remains the backbone of India’s power supply, accounting for nearly 70% of electricity generation. While renewable energy has expanded rapidly, India is already the world’s third-largest solar power producer, and issues of intermittency and storage remain unsolved. Wind and solar cannot yet provide the reliable base-load electricity that modern economies demand. Nuclear fission contributes only a modest share, and its expansion is often constrained by regulatory, safety, and land acquisition hurdles.

Against this backdrop, fusion emerges not merely as an option but as a necessity for India’s long-term energy security. Unlike coal, it is clean; unlike renewables, it provides steady output; unlike fission, it carries minimal risk of meltdowns or long-lived radioactive waste. Integrating fusion into India’s energy mix by the mid-21st century would not only diversify the portfolio but also reduce dependence on volatile fossil fuel imports.

6.2 Cost Considerations – The Price of Powering the Sun

The economics of fusion remain one of its greatest uncertainties. Building and operating fusion reactors is an enormously expensive endeavor. The ITER project, in which India is a key partner, has already exceeded €22 billion in costs, making it one of the most expensive scientific experiments in human history. On the domestic front, India’s first superconducting tokamak, SST-1, cost approximately Rs. 250 crore. While modest compared to ITER, scaling up to DEMO-class reactors will require investment in the range of tens of thousands of crores. Critics argue that such resources could instead accelerate renewable energy deployment, which is already commercially viable.

However, it is important to view fusion not as a short-term competitor to solar or wind, but as a long-term strategic investment. Economies of scale, once the first generation of reactors proves viable, could reduce costs significantly. Just as the price of solar panels fell by more than 90% in the past decade due to mass deployment and innovation, fusion technologies could experience a similar curve. Moreover, the cost of inaction, continued dependence on coal and fossil fuel imports, carries environmental, health, and geopolitical penalties that far outweigh upfront investments in fusion.

6.3 Strategic Importance – Beyond Energy

The implications of fusion go well beyond kilowatt-hours and electricity grids. Fusion represents a strategic leap for India in multiple dimensions. First, energy independence: India imports over 80% of its crude oil and significant quantities of natural gas. Fusion, once commercialized, would drastically reduce this dependence, insulating India from global energy shocks and price volatility. Second, global leadership in clean energy: Fusion is often described as the “holy grail” of energy. Nations that master it will not only solve their own energy crises but will also lead a multi-trillion-dollar global market. By pursuing fusion aggressively, India positions itself as a pioneer rather than a follower in this race. Third, dual-use technological spin-offs: The pursuit of fusion drives advances in superconductivity, high-performance computing, cryogenics, plasma physics, and advanced materials. These technologies are not limited to energy; they have direct applications in defense, aerospace, and medical imaging. In particular, superconducting magnet technologies being refined for fusion could also serve India’s space missions and missile systems, while neutron-resistant materials could find uses in defense and nuclear submarines. In short, fusion is not just about electricity; it is about sovereignty, technological supremacy, and national security.

India’s Policy Imperatives

To transform these opportunities into reality, India needs a coherent policy framework. This must include:

  • Sustained Public Funding: Fusion cannot rely on private sector investment alone in its early stages. Long-term public funding, modeled on ISRO’s space program, will be crucial.
  • Public-Private Partnerships: Over time, Indian industries must be integrated into building reactor components, developing supply chains, and innovating on energy storage and grid integration.
  • Global Collaboration with Local Capacity: India must continue leveraging its ITER partnership while ensuring that key intellectual property and skills are developed indigenously.
  • Regulatory Preparation: Establishing nuclear-grade safety, licensing, and environmental frameworks for future fusion reactors will be essential well before commercialization.

By embedding fusion into its energy, industrial, and geopolitical strategy, India can ensure that this pursuit transcends laboratories and becomes a national mission with long-term dividends.

7. India’s Fusion Vision

The Gandhinagar proposal signals that India no longer views fusion as a distant scientific curiosity but as a structured mission of national importance. To turn this vision into reality, India must chart a phased roadmap, balancing scientific ambition with practical milestones. A carefully staged approach ensures that India not only keeps pace with global advancements but also carves out its own leadership niche in fusion energy.

7.1 Short-Term Goals (2025–2035): Building the Foundations

The next decade will be decisive for India’s fusion trajectory. The immediate focus must be on consolidating existing assets and developing next-generation experimental facilities.

Upgrade SST-1: India’s Steady State Superconducting Tokamak (SST-1) remains a cornerstone of indigenous expertise. Upgrading its plasma control systems, diagnostics, and superconducting magnet efficiency will allow Indian scientists to refine operational experience with steady-state plasmas, an area of global importance.

Develop a Fusion Test Facility: Establishing a mid-scale test facility in Gandhinagar, as proposed, will be a critical stepping stone between SST-1 and DEMO-class reactors. This facility should be capable of testing advanced materials, plasma confinement methods, and tritium breeding blankets.

Expand ITER Collaboration: India’s contributions to ITER, such as cryostat manufacturing and diagnostics, have already won international recognition. Expanding roles in ITER operations, plasma experiments, and data modeling will deepen India’s technical expertise and strengthen its global scientific standing.

In this phase, India’s priority must be to strengthen indigenous R&D while maximizing knowledge transfer from ITER.

7.2 Medium-Term Goals (2035–2050): Demonstrating Breakthroughs

By the mid-21st century, India must aim for a leap from experiments to demonstrable energy-producing reactors.

Build India’s DEMO Reactor: A Demonstration Power Reactor (DEMO) is the critical bridge between experimental tokamaks and commercial plants. India’s DEMO project should target continuous plasma burn, energy gain well above Q = 10, and integration of tritium breeding blankets.

Achieve Sustained Net Energy Gain: While ITER’s Q = 10 milestone will be global, India’s DEMO should focus on sustained net energy gain over long operational cycles. This will validate fusion as a viable alternative for base-load electricity.

Tritium Breeding Demonstrations: India’s DEMO reactor must also prioritize lithium blanket testing for tritium production. Successfully closing the fuel cycle will eliminate dependency on scarce global tritium supplies and secure long-term energy sovereignty.

Industrial Partnerships: The medium term is also when private industry and energy utilities must enter the picture. Developing domestic supply chains for superconductors, cryogenic systems, and reactor components will reduce costs and create a fusion-driven industrial ecosystem.

This phase positions India as one of the few nations with the capability to move from research to practical demonstration, a status currently reserved for only a handful of global players.

7.3 Long-Term Goals (2050–2070): Towards Commercial Fusion Power

The ultimate test of India’s fusion roadmap lies in its ability to transition from experimental reactors to fully commercial power plants that feed into the national grid.

Commercial Fusion Power Plants: By the mid-21st century, India should aim to commission its first grid-connected fusion power plants. These reactors must provide continuous, stable electricity comparable in scale to coal or nuclear fission plants, with operational lifespans of 30–40 years.

Integration into India’s Smart Grid: Fusion plants must be harmonized with India’s evolving energy infrastructure. Smart grids, coupled with advanced energy storage systems, will enable seamless integration of fusion alongside solar, wind, and hydropower.

Fusion-Driven Hydrogen Economy: Beyond electricity, fusion has the potential to power a hydrogen revolution. High-temperature plasma heat can be harnessed for large-scale hydrogen production, enabling India to lead in green fuels for transport, industry, and exports.

Global Leadership Role: If India succeeds in this trajectory, it will not only meet domestic energy needs but also export fusion technologies and expertise. Such leadership would transform India into a global hub for clean energy innovation.

By 2070, India’s declared Net Zero target year, fusion could provide the backbone of a decarbonized, energy-secure economy.

7.4 A Vision Beyond Energy

This roadmap is not just about electricity; it is about national transformation. Fusion can anchor a new industrial base, inspire next-generation scientists, and redefine India’s geopolitical standing. Just as ISRO’s space program transformed India’s global image, a successful fusion program will cement India’s status as a scientific superpower. In short, the roadmap from SST-1 to DEMO to commercial fusion plants is a journey not only of technology but of sovereignty, sustainability, and civilization-scale ambition.

8. Risks and Critiques

The promise of fusion energy is immense, but so too are the doubts that surround it. For every bold projection of limitless clean power, there are sobering reminders of technical, economic, and political risks. India’s roadmap must therefore be pursued with both optimism and realism, acknowledging the critiques while finding ways to address them.

8.1 The Timeline Problem – “Always 30 Years Away”

Fusion has long carried the stigma of being perpetually delayed. Since the 1950s, scientists have promised commercial fusion “within 30 years.” Yet every generation has faced shifting deadlines due to unforeseen challenges in plasma physics, material science, and engineering. India’s policymakers must be wary of overpromising and underdelivering. Setting unrealistic deadlines could erode public trust and political will. Instead, India should frame fusion as a long-term strategic investment, with incremental milestones like SST-1 upgrades, test facilities, and DEMO reactors clearly communicated to the public. Transparency in goals and timelines will ensure continued support, even if breakthroughs take longer than expected.

8.2 High Upfront Costs – Investment vs. Opportunity Cost

The price of pursuing fusion is staggering. ITER has already surpassed €22 billion, and India’s domestic projects will require tens of thousands of crores in sustained funding. Critics argue that these resources could accelerate solar, wind, or energy storage deployment, technologies that are already cost-competitive. This economic critique cannot be dismissed lightly. Fusion is unlikely to provide electricity at scale before 2050, while India’s immediate climate and energy needs are urgent. To justify these costs, fusion must be presented not as a competitor to renewables but as a complementary long-term pillar of energy security. In the meantime, India must continue scaling renewables aggressively while nurturing fusion as the next-generation solution.

8.3 Competing Technologies – The Race Against Time

Fusion is not developing in isolation. Advanced nuclear fission technologies, such as small modular reactors (SMRs) and thorium-based systems, are advancing rapidly. Similarly, breakthroughs in battery storage and green hydrogen may solve the intermittency problem of renewables faster than fusion can mature. The risk for India is that by the time fusion becomes commercially viable, the global energy market may already be dominated by cheaper alternatives. To mitigate this, India’s roadmap should emphasize dual-use innovation, ensuring that advances in superconductors, cryogenics, plasma science, and materials also benefit other industries, regardless of fusion’s final timeline.

8.4 Safety Concerns – Tritium Handling and Neutron Radiation

Fusion is far safer than fission, but it is not entirely risk-free. Tritium, one of the primary fuels, is radioactive and must be carefully handled to prevent leaks. Neutron bombardment, while not producing long-lived waste, still generates short-lived radioactive materials in reactor walls. These issues require robust regulatory frameworks and advanced safety protocols. India must therefore begin preparing its regulatory ecosystem now, establishing fusion-specific safety guidelines, waste management strategies, and international best-practice standards. By being proactive, India can ensure that safety concerns do not derail public acceptance of fusion once demonstration reactors are built.

8.5 Political Will and Global Collaboration

Perhaps the greatest non-technical risk is the sustainability of political will. Fusion research spans decades, far longer than electoral cycles. Without bipartisan commitment and consistent funding, projects risk delays or abandonment. Moreover, fusion is inherently global. No single country can afford to reinvent every aspect of reactor design, plasma modeling, or materials science. If India isolates itself, progress will slow. Conversely, overdependence on foreign technologies risks strategic vulnerability. Striking the right balance between global collaboration and indigenous capacity building will be essential.

Transforming Risks into Opportunities

While these critiques are serious, they are not insurmountable. Each challenge, including timeline uncertainty, high costs, technological competition, safety, and political sustainability, can be reframed as an opportunity for India:

  • Timeline risk → adopt incremental milestones to build trust.
  • Cost risk → position fusion as a long-term complement to renewables.
  • Competing technologies → ensure spin-offs strengthen other sectors.
  • Safety concerns → build world-class regulatory systems early.
  • Political will → frame fusion as a national mission, like ISRO or nuclear power.

By taking this approach, India can ensure that fusion remains not just a dream deferred but a strategic pursuit that continuously yields scientific, industrial, and geopolitical dividends.

Conclusion:

India’s pursuit of fusion energy represents a bold leap toward a clean and sustainable energy future, yet it faces formidable technological hurdles. From maintaining plasma stability and achieving a net energy gain (Q > 1) to ensuring efficient tritium breeding and designing materials resilient to neutron damage, each challenge tests the limits of current science and engineering. Scaling these experimental successes to grid-ready power plants will demand not only technical innovation but also sustained investment, international collaboration, and strategic policy support. The roadmap outlined, including ITER participation and the STEP-India initiative, positions India to gradually transition from experimental research to commercial fusion power, promising a transformative impact on energy security, climate mitigation, and technological leadership in the 21st century.

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References:

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