India and China, the two rising economic and military powers in the world arena, are explicitly obviating the actual apple of discord/bone of contention behind the history of Sino-India tensions prevailing for more than six decades. Mere focussing on the long-standing territorial dispute, primarily centred on the Line of Actual Control (LAC), a 3,488-kilometer frontier and tough rivalry over achieving global supremacy in the world economy, they are actually avoiding the most annoying issue that initiated after granting asylum in India to Dalai Lama by Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru disregarding the warning of Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai in 1959. Nehru’s decision to disregard the Chinese Premier and embrace the Dalai Lama created a wide chasm in the relationship between these countries that led to the Sino-Indian war from October to November 1962. The dormant issue has surfaced once again after the Dalai Lama’s recent declaration that the institution of the Dalai Lama will continue after his death, with the Gaden Phodrang Trust holding the authority to recognize his reincarnation.

The Dalai Lama: A Spiritual Preceptor

The Dalai Lama is a celibate Buddhist monk who is revered as the head of the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism. The term Tā la'i bla ma in Wylie system is a part of the full title “Holiness Knowing Everything Vajradhara Dalai Lama” Altan Khan, the first Shunyi King of Ming China, first innovated the title which was first bestowed upon Sonam Gyatso, the third Dalai Lama, in 1578, whereas, his two predecessors were honoured with title posthumously. The term ‘Dalai Lama’ in Tibetan means the Royal-ba Rin-po-che, i.e., precious conqueror. Royal-ba Rin-po-che likely refers to Kushok Bakula Rinpoche, the head of Pethup Gompa in Spituk, Ladakh, and an emanation of the Buddha Amitabha. The term “Rin-po-che” is a reverent title in Tibetan Buddhism often showered upon reincarnate lamas, respected teachers, or abbots of monasteries. On the other hand, “Royal-ba” refers to the Zangla royal family, which Kushok Bakula Rinpoche belongs to. Ever since the period of the 5th Dalai Lama in the 17th century, the Dalai Lama has been a symbol of the unification of the state of Tibet. The Dalai Lama is considered a spiritual preceptor, particularly within Tibetan Buddhism. They are widely regarded as the spiritual leaders and teachers, both in Tibet and globally. The Dalai Lama is believed to be a tulku, a reincarnated lama, embodying the enlightened being across lifetimes with a lineage stretching back centuries. As a preceptor and religious teacher, he is entrusted with the onus of imparting Buddhist teachings, promoting compassion, tolerance, and universal peace.

Difference between Mahayana and Hinayana

After the Mahaparinirvana (Great Passing Away) of Lord Buddha around 400 BC, Buddhism split into two significant sects. Mahayana, i.e., great vehicle, and Hinayana, or Theravada, i.e., lesser vehicle, are the two major schools of Buddhism in their approach to attain enlightenment. Though both sects follow the fundamental teachings of Lord Buddha, their philosophical and practical approaches have evolved distinctly, reflecting the religion’s adaptability to different cultural and historical contexts. The former sect emphasizes the concept of Bodhisattvas, delaying their own enlightenment to help others, whereas the latter one sticks to the original teachings of the Buddha, focusing on individual enlightenment. In the Mahayana school of thought, Buddha is viewed as a divine being. But according to the Theravada school of thought, Buddha is revered as a teacher and guide who attained enlightenment through his own efforts. Individuals in Mahayana can strive for enlightenment not only for themselves but also for all sentient beings. On the other hand, individual liberation or Nirvana through self-effort and sticking to Buddhist teachings is given special importance in Hinayana. They stick strictly to the original teachings of the Buddha, as recorded in the Pali Canon in Tripitaka. But the Lotus Sutra, the Heart Sutra, and Avatamsaka are the prime texts of Mahayana. If Buddha is seen as a saviour figure and an embodiment of compassion in Mahayana, He is recognized as a historical figure and an example of how to achieve enlightenment in Hinayana. In East Asian countries, China, Korea, Japan, Tibet, and Vietnam, the Mahayana school of Buddhism is popular. But the Hinayana school of thought flourishes in Southeast Asian countries, including Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, and Thailand.

The Dalai Lama to Attain Bodhisattva

Fourteen generations of Dalai Lamas holding offices for about six centuries are considered to be manifestations of the bodhisattva of compassion, Avalokiteśvara. A Bodhisattva in Buddhism pursues the path of ‘Bodhi’ (awakening) to become a ‘Buddha’. In Indian Buddhism, including Theravada Buddhism in Sri Lanka and other parts of Southeast Asia, the term ‘Bodhisattva’ primarily refers to the Buddha Shakyamuni or Goutam Siddhartha in his former lives. Jataka tales, composed between 300 BC and 400 AD, recount stories of Buddha’s previous existences, both in human or in animal forms, as a Bodhisattva, i.e., a being destined for enlightenment. The tales illustrate Buddhist virtues, ethical principles, the concept of reincarnation, and above all, the path to Nirvana or Moksha (Liberation from the cycle of birth and death).

But unlike Theravada Buddhism, in the Mahayana tradition of Buddhism flourished in Tibet, China, Japan, and Korea, the Bodhisattva is not confined to the past lives of Buddha Sakyamuni. It is defined that anyone who vowed the aspiration to awaken is entitled to become Buddha or Bodhisattva. Therefore, many have committed themselves to becoming bodhisattvas and, through training and self-renunciation, acquired supernatural powers. They are practically considered equivalent to a Bodhisattva in spiritual power, wisdom, and compassion to assist ordinary beings, guide them on the right path, and even enable them to perform miraculously.

The Dalai Lamas: Manifestations of Avalokitesvara

The Dalai Lamas are a lineage of Tibetan Buddhist lamas. They are believed to be manifestations of Avalokitesvara, the bodhisattva of compassion. Revered as spiritual leaders, they are at times considered political leaders, too, embodying spiritual knowledge and wisdom. Though the concept of a Dalai Lama as a reincarnated spiritual leader dates back to the 15th century with the recognition of the first Dalai Lama, Gendun Drup, this tradition within Tibetan Buddhism was formally established in 1587. Mongol leader Altan Khan bestowed the title on the third Dalai Lama, named Sonam Gyatso. Gendun Drup (1391 – 1474) was posthumously recognized as the first Dalai Lama. He was the disciple of Je Tsongkhapa, the founder of the Gelug School. Gendun Gyatso, who was recognized as the incarnation of the first Dalai Lama, was honoured as the second Dalai Lama. He became the abbot of Drepung and Sera monasteries. The lineage continued through subsequent reincarnations identified through specific Tibetan Buddhist practices and traditions, often involving the Panchen Lama, who would traditionally identify the reincarnation of his recognized as the Dalai Lama. Dalai Lamas play a significant role in Tibetan history and are considered a unifying force for their dedication to peace and compassion.

Tashi Lhunpo Monastery was founded by His Holiness the 1st Dalai Lama, Gyalwa Gedum Drupa, in 1447. He was based at that monastery. But the next four Dalai Lamas are based at Drepung Monastery outside Lhasa. However, the 5th Dalai Lama moved to the ruins of a royal fortress on top of Marpori or Red Mountain in Lhasa after the unification of Tibet in 1645. The construction of the Potala Palace began in 1645. From then on, the Dalai Lamas have spent their winters at the Potala Palace and their summers at the Norbulingka, both in Lhasa. However, the incumbent 16th Dalai Lama, following the failed uprising in Tibet in 1959, has sought refuge in India, living in exile in McLeod Ganj, in the Kangra district of Himachal Pradesh in northern India, where the Central Tibetan Administration is established. His residence is called the Dalai Lama Temple, which is visited by millions across the world. They have set up many schools and Buddhist temples in Dharamshala.

The Dalai Lama & Nirvana

In the context of Tibetan Buddhism, the Dalai Lama and Nirvana are inseparable from each other. Nirvana in Buddhism is the ultimate goal, a state of liberation from the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. It is a state of perfect peace and liberation from suffering. It signifies the extinction of three poisons: greed, hatred, and ignorance that keep individuals trapped in suffering. Nirvana is a state to be realized, not just an intellectual understanding. This state of realization is characterised by profound peace, liberation, and the cessation of all mental formations. The ultimate goal of Buddhist practice is to unshackle oneself from the fetters of the mundane world. If nirvana is the ultimate destination in Buddhism, enlightenment (awakening), which refers to the moment of profound insight into the true nature of reality and the sources of suffering, is the avenue to nirvana.

The Dalai Lama, as a spiritual leader of Tibetan Buddhism, embodies the Buddhist path to enlightenment and nirvana as well.

The 14th Dalai Lama

Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama, is the incumbent spiritual leader of Tibet and the head of the Gelug School of Tibetan Buddhism. He was born on July 6, 1935, at Taktser, Tibet, to a farming and horse trading family in the small hamlet of Taktser at the edge of the traditional Tibetan region of erstwhile Amdo, now Qinghai Province. He was recognized as the reincarnation of the 13th Dalai Lama at the age of two.

His Holiness started his monastic education at the age of six. The curriculum, derived from the Nalanda tradition, consisted of five major and five minor subjects. The major subjects were Buddhist philosophy, logic, fine arts, Sanskrit grammar, and medicine. The greatest emphasis in the curriculum was laid on Buddhist philosophy, which was divided into five further categories. They are Prajnaparamita, the perfection of wisdom; Madhyamika, the philosophy of the Middle Way; Vinaya, the canon of monastic discipline; Abhidharma, metaphysics; and Pramana, logic and epistemology. On the other hand, five minor subjects included poetry, drama, astrology, composition, and synonyms. He completed the Geshe Lharampa Degree, i.e., Doctorate of Buddhist Philosophy, at the age of 25.

When Tibet was threatened by China in the mid-twentieth century, His Holiness, a teenager, was entrusted with the onus of full political power as the Head of State and Government of the country in 1950. He visited Mao Tse-Tung, Chou En-Lai, and the Indian Prime Minister Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru visited India to attend the 2500th Buddha Jayanti in 1956. He delineated the deteriorating conditions in Tibet in a series of meetings. At last, he was forced into exile in India in 1959. He fled Lhasa in disguise, crossing the Himalayas on horseback and foot, eventually reaching India on March 31, 1959. Since 1960, he has been residing in Dharamsala, in Himachal Pradesh. It is also known as “Little Lhasa”, the seat of the Tibetan Government-in-Exile. Nearly 100,000 Tibetan refugees live in different parts of India today, comprising the largest exile population of the community.

His Holiness in exile urged the UN about Tibet. As a result, three resolutions were adopted by the General Assembly in 1959, 1961, and 1965. A draft constitution for Tibet assuring a democratic form of government was promulgated in 1963. Later, a large number of educational institutions, cultural and religious centres set up by His Holiness left major contributions towards the preservation and protection of the rich heritage of Tibetan identity and culture. He laid much emphasis on the development and practice of the rare Kalachakra Initiation. He proposed a Five-Point Peace Plan at the Congressional Human Rights Caucus in 1987 as a primary step to resolve the future status of Tibet as a zone of peace to end the massive transfer of ethnic Chinese into Tibet and restore fundamental human rights and democratic freedoms. The Plan also calls for the abandonment of China’s use of Tibet for nuclear weapons and the dumping of nuclear waste. He even proposed the creation of a self-governing democratic Tibet where the Tibetan people will enjoy ultimate authority to make decisions. In his address to members of the European Parliament in Strasbourg on 15th June, 1986, His Holiness emphasized the explanation of the fifth point of the Five-Point Peace Plan for the commencement of earnest negotiations on the future status of Tibet and of relations between the Tibetan and Chinese peoples.

His Holiness travels to about 70 countries on 6 continents. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his perennial effort in the struggle for the liberation of Tibet through non-violence. Besides, the 14th Dalai Lama has received more than 150 awards, honorary doctorates, and various other prizes in recognition of his message of global peace, non-violence, inter-religious understanding, and his concern for global environmental problems.

His Holiness retired from his political role as the head of the Tibetan Government-in-Exile in March 2011. He handed over authority to a democratically elected leadership for the transition of the Tibetan movement to a more democratic structure.

Contention over the selection of Successor

His Holiness said to his monks, “No one else has any such authority to interfere in this matter.” The incumbent His Holiness has advocated that his inner circle of monks will find an heir, but China prefers to keep the authority of choice in its grip. The Dalai Lama turned 90 last July this year. Many monks and devotees congregated in Dharamshala, the mountainous Indian city, to listen to the long-awaited announcement about his reincarnation. In a video broadcast to Tibetan monks and leaders, he laid out what the future would hold. The announcement came amid fears of a ruthless succession battle between the Tibetan community and the Chinese government that lasted for more than six decades over the issue of controlling the institution of the Dalai Lama, revered as the highest teacher in Tibetan Buddhism. His Holiness has confirmed that he would hold his position to play the role of the Dalai Lama of Tibetan Buddhism till his death. He also affirmed that he would be reincarnated as per centuries of tradition, and only the inner circle comprising a trust of closely allied monks would enjoy the full authority to locate his successor. It is often a lengthy process to track down a child whose spirit has been reborn.

In an attempt to prevent Chinese interference, the Dalai Lama might put forward an alternative mode of reincarnation. He may transfer his spiritual essence to a successor who could be identified during his lifetime. However, he previously hinted that he might not reincarnate at all. In his recent statement, he has clearly dismissed the long-standing view of the Communist Party of China to hold absolute authority to decide the next Dalai Lama, which has been enshrined in Chinese Law.

Chinese Response and Its Repercussions

The Dalai Lama, as a religious and political leader proven himself a highly effective global advocate for the Tibetan cause and community over the past 66 years. He has sternly protested China’s earnest effort to intervene in the institution of the Dalai Lama and the succession process. China has imposed draconian measures and censorship to dismantle the influence and efface the images of the Dalai Lama over the people of greater Tibet. He has been described as a “wolf in monk’s clothing”. Beijing views him as a dissident and separatist in vain. Rather, His Holiness has attained an international reputation. In recognition of his global fame, he has been awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. He has been revered by millions of devotees and international celebrities all over the world. Needless to say, the Dalai Lama is now more revered than ever in Dharamshala, Tibet, and around the world. The recent contention over the selection of the successor of the Dalai Lama between Beijing and His Holiness may possibly create a new scenario where, for the first time, two Dalai Lamas will be appointed – one from Tibetan monks outside China and another from within China by the Communist Party of China.

India’s Unwavering Support for The Current Dalai Lama

Though the Dalai Lama’s political asylum in India has wreaked havoc in Indo-Chinese relations, India has never revoked its support for the religious cum political leader of Tibet. Disregarding China’s repeated warnings, India has extended its full support to the Dalai Lama in the reincarnation issue. Kiren Rijiju, minister of minority affairs and a Buddhist himself, publicly said that the reincarnation of the Dalai Lama is to be decided by the established convention and above all according to the wish of the Dalai Lama himself. His Holiness should enjoy the absolute right to decide the next reincarnation of the Dalai Lama. However, China’s foreign ministry told India to stop using the Tibet issue to interfere in China’s domestic affairs. It is apprehended by many that the geopolitical challenges over the burning issue might be jeopardised after the death of the Dalai Lama if the Tibetan officials had failed to select his reincarnation before.

Chinese invasion and control of the autonomous region of Tibet in 1950, followed by a foiled uprising by Tibetans in 1959, the Dalai Lama acted as a religious and political leader and was forced into exile in India. After his perilous escape across the Himalayas in April 1959, the Dalai Lama met the then Indian Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, who allowed the Tibetan spiritual leader to live in India peacefully. Since then, His Holiness, along with other Tibetan religious leaders, civilians, and parliamentarians in exile, has established their political and religious headquarters in Dharamshala in the Himalayan Mountains. Apart from the Dalai Lama, India is estimated to be home to more than 100,000 Tibetan Buddhists who are free to study and work there. Many Indians revere him, and international relations experts say his presence in India gives New Delhi a measure of leverage with rival China. Simultaneously, the Dalai Lama had been endeavouring to the utmost to prevent the 600-year-old Tibetan Buddhist institution from being controlled by the Chinese government. The US, in the wake of facing rising competition from China for global dominance, has also advocated for the human rights of Tibetans. They have moved backward from their previous stance of allowing China to influence the choice of the Dalai Lama’s successor. Instead, the US President Joe Biden signed a law the previous year that pressed Beijing to resolve a dispute over Tibet’s demands for greater autonomy.

China’s Present Position

China thinks that its government has the sole authority to approve the reincarnation process of the Dalai Lama as a matter of sovereignty and religious regulation. According to a 2007 law, all the reincarnations of the Tibetan “Living Buddha” must be approved by the state as per Chinese laws, religious rituals, and historical precedent. However, China has a history of hijacking a selection before. The young boy of six in Tibet, Gedhun Choekyi Nyima, was recognised as the Panchen Lama by the Dalai Lama in 1995. The whereabouts of the boy, along with his family members, are still unknown. That incident is one of the major causes of apprehension of the current Dalai Lama and Tibetans in exile. It is feared that the chosen child might be abducted, as happened three decades ago.

The Golden Urn Method

China wants to follow the Golden Urn method to select the reincarnation of the Dalai Lama, which took place as far back as 1793 during the Qing dynasty, widely recognized as the rule of the Manchu ethnic group over the wider region and around. The Golden Urn method is used to select reincarnation of Tibetan Buddhist leaders, particularly the Dalai Lama and Panchen Lama. A number of ‘soul boys’ considered reincarnated living Buddhas are to be named by authorised temples. One of them will become the respective Lama after a draw of lots from the urn. It involves writing the names of candidates on slips of ivory or metal, placing them in a golden urn. Then a slip is drawn to determine the chosen reincarnation. Though this method was initially introduced to formalize the selection process and consolidate imperial control over Tibetan affairs, it has become a point of contention between Tibetan Buddhists and the Chinese government regarding the legitimacy of the choice of the Dalai Lama’s succession. One of the Golden Urns is reportedly kept in Lhasa, the capital of the Tibet region in China. It is for choosing the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama, whereas another Urn is housed in Beijing to select the Mongolian Lama. Needless to say, there is much room for controversy about the fair selection of the reincarnation of the Dalai Lama through the Golden Urn method.

Controversy over the Urn Method

Chinese foreign ministry spokesman Mao Ning said clearly, “The reincarnation of the Dalai Lama, the Panchen Lama and other great Buddhist figures must be chosen by drawing lots from a golden urn, and approved by the central government.” But the current Dalai Lama has unequivocally rejected the Golden Urn method, repeatedly referring to his statement made in 2011. There, he explained, “During the conflict between Tibet and the Gurkhas (1791 – 1793), the Tibetan Government had to call on Manchu military support. Consequently, the Gurkha military was expelled from Tibet, but afterwards, Manchu officials (Qing dynasty) made a 29-point proposal on the pretext of making the Tibetan Government’s administration more efficient. This proposal included the suggestions of picking lots from a Golden Urn to decide on the recognition of the reincarnations.” But Tibetans had no faith in it as it lacked any spiritual quality. Above all, the system was imposed by the Manchus or the Qing dynasty. It added that the 9th, 13th, and the present Dalai Lamas were not chosen by this method. His Holiness has reiterated that his Gaden Phodrang Trust will be solely responsible for recognizing his reincarnation.

While both China and the Dalai Lama have expressed their wishes clearly, the divergence in views keeps the possibility of a contested succession that may destabilize the already sensitive situation in Tibet. The issue of reincarnation, instead of thawing the ice after the Galwan dispute, has every possibility to fester the decades-long hostility between the two Himalayan nations. Last but not least, the issue of reincarnation has deteriorated the relationship between China and the US, as the latter has supported the Tibetan cause.

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References:

• The Next Dalai Lama: Preparing for Reincarnation and Why It Matters to India CARNEGIE INDIA
• Dalai Lama reincarnation: Contest over the soul of debate               Deccan Herald
• Dalai Lama alone holds the authority to decide reincarnation, says Rijiju. The Hindu Dalai Lama: Politics of reincarnation - The Economic Times
• Dalai Lama: Politics of reincarnation - The Economic Times
• Reincarnation of a Dalai Lama Nature
• The Reincarnation Of The Dalai Lama India’s WORLD
• Securing the Legacy: The Future of the Dalai Lama and Tibet. A Tibetan Point of View - Bitter Winter
• Meet the 13 reincarnations before the 14th Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso - The Indian Express
• Why the Dalai Lama Decided Not to Break From Tradition on His Successor The New York Times
• Dalai Lama confirms he will have a successor after his death, BBC