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Abstract

This research examines the complex interplay between elementary education and the empowerment of tribal communities in Jammu and Kashmir, India. It investigates how historical inequalities, poverty, limited infrastructure, and cultural isolation have impeded access to education among Scheduled Tribes, particularly the Gujjar and Bakerwal populations. Employing a qualitative methodology, the study draws on both primary and secondary sources, including government reports, census data, field interviews, and published literature, to analyse the socio-economic and educational challenges confronting tribal groups. The findings indicate that geographical remoteness, seasonal migration, and linguistic barriers continue to hinder consistent school attendance and learning outcomes. Despite various government initiatives, such as the Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan, NIPUN Bharat Mission, and Eklavya Model Residential Schools, disparities persist in equitable access and quality of education. The study underscores the urgent need for context-specific educational reforms, community engagement, and the inclusion of native languages at the primary level. It concludes that reinforcing tribal education through inclusive, localised, and culturally responsive policies can empower tribal youth to become active contributors to regional development and social progress.

Introduction

The Indian-administered territory of Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) is a region of remarkable cultural diversity and intricate topography within South Asia. Encompassing an area of roughly 22,236 square kilometres, it is bordered by Pakistan-administered Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan to the west and north, and by Himachal Pradesh and Punjab to the south, as per the 2011 Census of India. The 2011 census indicated a total population of 12.5 million in J&K, with approximately 1.49 million individuals belonging to Scheduled Tribes (STs). The Gujjar and Bakarwal communities, the largest tribal groups, have traditionally followed a pastoral and seminomadic way of life.

Historically, these tribal populations have been situated on the periphery of the region's socio-economic structure. Their livelihoods are centred on seasonal migration between high-altitude summer pastures and lower-altitude winter settlements, as noted by Mir & Batool in 2022. This cyclical movement presents challenges to consistent schooling and limits access to formal education. In 2011, the literacy rate among Scheduled Tribes in J&K was only 50.6%, which is considerably lower than the national average of 74% in India, as per the Census of India, 2011. This disparity underscores systemic marginalisation and a lack of institutional support.

Scholarly discourse posits that education transcends mere literacy, serving as a cornerstone for human advancement and agency (Ahmad, 2023). Within tribal communities, education functions as a catalyst for societal evolution while simultaneously safeguarding cultural heritage. Elementary education is of paramount importance, providing the essential groundwork for continuous learning, social integration, and economic engagement. Nevertheless, in Jammu and Kashmir, the aspiration of universal education remains unattainable for numerous tribal children, primarily due to persistent structural impediments. A comprehensive understanding of these obstacles is crucial for policymakers, educators, and social advocates aiming to formulate equitable educational strategies that are tailored to the distinct circumstances of tribal life within the region.

Furthermore, Education transcends mere literacy, acting as a catalyst for human advancement, individual agency, and societal integration. According to Ahmad (2023), education for tribal communities functions as a pathway to social advancement while preserving cultural heritage. Foundational elementary education is crucial for fostering lifelong learning, promoting individual empowerment, and facilitating community progress. Despite this, many tribal children in J&K face significant challenges in accessing universal education due to enduring structural, cultural, and logistical impediments. A thorough comprehension of these obstacles is essential for developing inclusive, culturally appropriate educational strategies aimed at empowering tribal communities.

Comprehensive Literature Review

The review of literature is not simply reading for pleasure; rather, it is a focused endeavour with a specific goal in mind. A researcher must carefully choose the literature to be reviewed and define the objectives for studying it. Therefore, to fulfil the goals and objectives of the study, a comprehensive review of pertinent literature has been conducted. The matter of educational disadvantage among tribal communities is complex, and as a result, it has garnered the attention of numerous authors, scholars, academics, organisations, and governments. The following is a comprehensive overview of significant works addressing various aspects of tribal education and development.

Abass, Ahmed, and Ahmed (2015) revealed that the Gujjar and Bakarwal are the third largest ethnic group in Jammu and Kashmir, making up over 11.9% of the total population of the erstwhile state, a truly remarkable presence. As the only scheduled tribe in the UT, they have successfully preserved their culture and heritage throughout the ages, a testament to their resilience. This study focuses on the socio-economic and educational life of tribal communities in general, and the Gujjar and Bakarwal in particular, shedding light on their experiences. Relying on secondary sources, including the population census of India in 2001 and 2011, various journals, articles, books, and reports, this research provides valuable insights. The findings indicate that the socio-economic and educational status of the Gujjar and Bakarwal in the erstwhile state of Jammu and Kashmir is not satisfactory, but there is hope for improvement. Although a few families have achieved educational success, the majority of tribal communities continue to face challenges due to illiteracy and poverty. Widespread poverty, illiteracy, and backwardness persist among tribal people, but efforts to address these issues can lead to positive change. Most Gujjars and Bakarwals in Jammu and Kashmir rely on agricultural productivity and cattle for their livelihood in lower, middle, and higher mountain regions, demonstrating their resourcefulness. Providing educational services to transhumant areas poses challenges, similar to those faced by other rural and marginalised households in the region, but innovative solutions can be found. These challenges include nomadism, poor infrastructure, and limited access to resources, but by working together, we can overcome them. Poorly motivated teachers. The authors revealed that efforts are required to generate educational awareness and attitudinal changes among the masses regarding tribal people, and the role of tribal families, community leaders, and media deserves special attention to bring about a positive transformation.

Farhan Gulzar and Nusrat Rashid (2015) revealed in their evaluative study that the MGNREGA scheme was introduced in district Kupwara in 2005-06, along with other most backward districts of the country, including district Poonch and district Doda of the state. The act, which was enacted by legislation on August 25, 2005, was later renamed the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act on October 2, 2009. The activities undertaken by MGNREGA in this hilly district include water conservation and harvesting, irrigation canals, including micro and minor irrigation works, renovation of traditional water bodies, including desilting of tanks, flood control and protection works, and works for the development of lands belonging to ST/SCs. District Kupwara has secured the top position in the implementation of MGNREGA during the ongoing financial year in Kashmir. It has created 60 lakh man-days, which is more than in any other district in Kashmir. The better implementation was possible due to heavy participation in the program. NREGA is a demand-driven scheme where the achievement of targets depends upon the demand of workers. They emphasised that low wage rates were given to labourers compared to the market rate. The current applicable wage rate, since April 2015-16, is 164, compared to other states like Haryana, where the applicable wage rate is 236. They also revealed that the non-availability of human resources emphasised that the scheme requires district-level experts to implement it properly, which, unfortunately, are not available, even after the target for experts has been set but has failed to be achieved. The major hurdle on the part of human resources is that there are no permanent employees under the particular scheme. Accountability is not up-to-date in the district under this scheme, and misuse of funds is a common routine. Improper implementation of the scheme may be the cause of these loopholes.

Sahoo (2019) determined that the existing educational development policies for tribal communities are insufficient to address the unique challenges faced by this demographic. The research indicated that government-implemented population and distance norms have been ineffective in tribal regions due to their low population density and isolated living arrangements. Furthermore, both the tribal welfare and educational departments have demonstrated a lack of understanding regarding the complexities of tribal life and their expectations of the educational system when developing policies and programs. In addition, factors such as school quality, teacher suitability, content relevance, curriculum, and instructional methods contribute to educational disparities among scheduled tribes.

Bhat and Khan (2021) analysed school progression and dropout patterns among tribal children in Jammu and Kashmir. They found declining enrollment trends at primary and upper primary stages, increasing gender disparity, and rising dropout rates. The authors suggest tribe-specific research studies to understand the cultural, social, and socioeconomic factors affecting tribal children’s education.

Dr Javaid Rahi (2022) is a distinguished tribal researcher, author, and social worker from Jammu and Kashmir. He has made notable contributions to the promotion and development of tribal languages, literature, and culture. Dr Rahi has authored over 25 books and edited more than 300 books and magazine issues in various languages, focusing on tribal literature, history, and culture. He compiled the first-ever Gujari dictionary, containing approximately 70,000 words, and prepared the syllabus for the Gujari subject from Class I to Class VIII for the Jammu and Kashmir Board of School Education. Dr Rahi received the Tribal Award of the Year 2022 from the Government of Jammu and Kashmir and the National Fellowship award from the Ministry of Culture, Government of India. He has conducted extensive research on tribal communities, including Gujjars, Bakarwals, and other Scheduled Tribes in Jammu and Kashmir, and advocated for their rights and empowerment. Dr Rahi emphasises the importance of preserving tribal knowledge and culture through documentation and education. He suggests that education should be contextualised to meet the specific needs of tribal communities. He has worked closely with tribal communities, raising awareness about their rights, laws, and government schemes. His efforts have helped thousands of forest-dwelling tribal families access benefits under the Forest Rights Act of 2006. Dr Rahi’s work has informed policy decisions and initiatives aimed at promoting tribal welfare and education in Jammu and Kashmir.

Hilal Ahmad Dar and Zahoor Ahmad Wani’s (2024) study sheds light on the inspiring paradox of tribal integration amidst resistance, focusing on the resilient Bakarwals in Jammu and Kashmir. The Bakarwals, a Scheduled Tribe, demonstrate remarkable strength in the face of double marginalisation as a disadvantaged community in a sensitive border region. Traditionally transhumance pastoralists, they’ve shown incredible adaptability despite limited access to education, healthcare, and basic amenities. Government initiatives often overlook the community’s unique needs and Perspectives, but the Bakarwals’ determination shines through. They exhibit ambivalence towards state-led development initiatives, reflecting their agency and autonomy. Low literacy rates (below 30%) and high dropout rates pose challenges, but the Bakarwals’ spirit remains unbroken. Their traditional lifestyle is deeply connected to their natural environment and cultural identity, inspiring a sense of hope. The study highlights the need for nuanced and context-specific approaches to development and policymaking, recognising the value of the Bakarwals’ nomadic practice and addressing their specific challenges, ultimately empowering them to thrive.

Methodology

 The present study utilises a qualitative, descriptive, and interpretive research design to investigate the socio-educational obstacles and empowerment initiatives within tribal communities in Jammu and Kashmir. This approach facilitates a comprehensive understanding of the social, cultural, and economic factors influencing education among Scheduled Tribes (STs). By prioritising narratives, policy documents, and observed trends, this qualitative methodology aims to uncover the root causes of educational disparities, rather than relying solely on quantitative data.

Data Sources

The research incorporated both primary and secondary sources. Primary data was gathered from field-based documentation accessible in government archives, tribal development reports, and interviews featured in media outlets like Greater Kashmir. Statements from prominent officials, including those within the Tribal Affairs Department, offered valuable context regarding policy implementation (Choudhary, n.d.). Secondary data comprised scholarly journals, census reports, government publications, and previous research on tribal education in India (Ahmad, 2023; Abbas, 2015; Bhat & Khan, 2022).

Data Collection and Analysis

The research employed a document analysis approach, meticulously examining policies, census data, and scholarly articles. Each document was scrutinised for prevalent themes, including accessibility, linguistic inclusion, gender equity, and infrastructural development. The analysis utilised a thematic coding process, categorising findings under headings such as socio-economic barriers, institutional interventions, and empowerment outcomes. The interpretation of qualitative data was informed by social constructivist viewpoints, highlighting the influence of historical and cultural contexts on education rather than viewing it as solely dependent on individual policies. The triangulation of various data sources-policy documents, academic research, and official reports-was implemented to enhance reliability and mitigate potential bias.

Scope and Limitations

The study shines a light on elementary education within J&K's vibrant tribal communities, primarily the Gujjar and Bakarwal groups, unlocking rich insights through qualitative analysis. Although field-level data collection faced challenges due to restricted accessibility to high-altitude tribal settlements, the research boldly acknowledges these limitations. Moreover, recent policy developments post-2021, though not fully evaluated due to limited published data, pave the way for ongoing educational reforms. Ultimately, the triangulated method ensures that the conclusions drawn reflect broad, evidence-based interpretations, illuminating the path forward.

Challenges in Tribal Education

  1. Geographical Isolation and Accessibility: In Jammu and Kashmir, tribal settlements are frequently situated in distant mountainous regions, which often present challenges such as limited road access and harsh weather conditions. During the winter months, numerous villages experience road closures, which can hinder children's ability to attend school consistently (Abbas, 2015). The challenging terrain not only isolates communities but also elevates the expenses associated with constructing and maintaining educational facilities. For nomadic and seminomadic communities, such as the Bakarwals, who relocate with their livestock, the idea of traditional schooling clashes with their way of life, resulting in inconsistent school attendance and premature departures.
  2. Socio-Economic Constraints: Economic vulnerability is one of the most significant impediments to education in tribal areas. Many families depend on livestock rearing or daily wage labour, leaving little financial or temporal flexibility to support schooling. Poverty forces children to assist in household or migratory activities, particularly among boys, while girls are often engaged in domestic chores. The lack of economic incentives to pursue education perpetuates intergenerational illiteracy (Bhat & Khan, 2022).
  3. Cultural and Linguistic Barriers: The disparity in language and cultural context between educational institutions and tribal communities contributes to diminished student engagement. A majority of government schools utilise Urdu, Hindi, or English as the primary instructional medium, whereas a significant number of tribal children primarily communicate in Gojri or Pahari within their homes (Acharyya, 2007). This linguistic variance presents challenges to comprehension and simultaneously fosters a sense of cultural estrangement among students. Furthermore, the absence of curricula that incorporate tribal histories, folklore, and indigenous knowledge systems potentially transforms education into a tool of assimilation, thereby undermining its capacity to empower.
  4. Teacher Shortages and Quality of Education: Teacher absenteeism, inadequate training, and uneven distribution of teaching staff are chronic problems in tribal regions. Many teachers posted in remote areas lack motivation or familiarity with tribal cultures, reducing their effectiveness in the classroom. Studies have shown that when teachers are recruited from within the community, student participation and retention improve markedly (Ahmad, 2023). However, current recruitment policies often fail to prioritise such localised hiring practices.
  5. Gender Disparities: Tribal girls encounter numerous obstacles to educational attainment, encompassing societal expectations that emphasise domestic responsibilities, inadequate sanitation infrastructure, and safety concerns associated with extended travel to educational institutions. While initiatives like Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao have contributed to advancements in mitigating gender disparities, a substantial gap persists. Specifically, female literacy rates within tribal communities continue to be notably lower than male literacy rates, with a disparity exceeding 15 percentage points as of the 2011 Census of India.
  6. Administrative and Institutional Challenges: The fragmentation of responsibilities between the Departments of Education, Tribal Affairs, and Social Welfare often leads to inefficient policy implementation. Additionally, the absence of reliable data on tribal education outcomes hampers evidence-based planning. Many schools in tribal regions operate without adequate inspection or community oversight, resulting in declining accountability and quality standards.
  7. Insufficient Funding and Infrastructure: The current budget allocations for tribal education initiatives in Jammu and Kashmir are inadequate to address the existing requirements. Schools often lack essential resources, including electricity, libraries, laboratories, and digital tools. Furthermore, the limited availability of residential schools poses a challenge for children from migratory families, who require adaptable educational models. Achieving universal elementary education for tribal populations will necessitate sustained financial investment and infrastructure upgrades. A comprehensive review of the current funding and resource allocation for tribal education initiatives is recommended to identify and address the factors impacting the quality of education within tribal communities.
  8. Lack of Community Engagement: It is believed that a lack of community engagement in educational planning and decision-making contributes to tribal communities not receiving a quality education.

Government Initiatives: Jammu and Kashmir has indeed put into action several programs:

  1. Mid-Day Meal Scheme: The primary objectives of the "Mid-Day Meal" program are: To equip students to attend school with enthusiasm and excitement; to unleash their full learning potential; and to emancipate families from financial
  2. Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao: Empowering Women, Empowering Society. The Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao initiative is affecting meaningful change in Jammu and Kashmir. Education and empowerment are pivotal in unlocking a brighter future for all. As the adage goes, "Educate a woman, educate a generation"-it is heartening to witness this philosophy in action, shaping the future of Kashmir's youth and communities.
  3. Samagra Shiksha: The Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) is a leading initiative of the Government of India, launched in 2018, to universalise elementary education. The program aims to provide inclusive and unbiased education to all children, focusing on quality, accessibility, and accountability.
  4. The PMAAGY: The PMAAGY initiative is dedicated to delivering essential infrastructure to villages that have a substantial tribal population. Within this program, a minimum of 50% of the tribal population has been designated for
  5. PM-JANMAN: PM-JANMAN aims to boost particularly underprivileged Tribal Groups (PVTGs) by improving their quality of life through targeted support in areas like housing, education, health, and sustainable livelihoods.
  6. NIPUN Bharat Mission: The objective of this mission is to cultivate fundamental literacy and numeracy skills by the third grade. Furthermore, scholarships, hostels, and Ashram schools offer supplementary support to tribal students and particularly deprived Tribal Groups (PVTGs).
  7. Dharti Aaba Mission: Dharti Aaba Mission is another leading tribal development program aimed at improving the quality of life in tribal-dominated villages. This program will prioritise involvement in infrastructure, education, and healthcare as well.

Key Recommendations

  1. Native Language Instruction: Implement native language instruction at elementary levels. If we teach through the medium of the mother tongue, it will uplift tribal society broadly instead of providing instruction through other mediums. It also has a stronger connection to cultural heritage.
  2. Recruiting qualified tribal teachers: Recruiting qualified tribal teachers who are skilled in local languages could offer several advantages, including: enhanced academic results for tribal students, the preservation of local languages and cultures, increased cultural sensitivity and understanding within schools, and effective communication among teachers, students, and communities.
  3. Tribal Education Plan: The Department of Tribal Affairs of Jammu and Kashmir must take bold steps to examine the state of education in reference to tribal students, to address specific educational necessities apart from the core efforts
  4. Scholarship for Higher Education: This initiative makes quality education inexpensive for tribal students and empowers them to access the best educational institutions and study learning resources.
  5. Equal Distribution of Teachers: Ensure equitable distribution of teachers across tribal and isolated areas. This strategy can help address the inequalities in teacher distribution and provide quality education to tribal and remote communities.
  6. Scholarships for Seasonal Centres: This initiative could identify the challenges encountered by educators within these centres, propose strategies for enhancing their quality, and foster academic excellence. Furthermore, the goal is to optimise the effectiveness of migratory schools to cultivate a positive learning environment for students and to elevate both student performance and aspirations.
  7. Engage NGOs for Vocational Training and Skill Development: This visionary initiative will transform tribal areas into vibrant hubs where young minds converge to innovate, acquire in-demand skills, and embark on social entrepreneurship to tackle local, national, and global challenges. Additionally, this initiative will align with the Sustainable Development Goals.
  8. Modernisation of Schools in Tribal Areas: This unique initiative, in coordination with the School Education Department, would change the infrastructure landscape of schools in remote tribal areas; therefore, all schools in tribal areas must be modernised.
  9. Eklavya Model Residential Schools (EMRS): It is imperative that the scope of Eklavya Model Residential Schools (EMRS) be broadened to ensure that more tribal areas in Jammu and Kashmir can benefit from them.
  10. Establish ICT Labs in all Tribal Schools: ICT labs are important for schools because they help students develop digital skills and prepare them for the future workforce, so that they can compete with those students who are fully knowledgeable regarding computer knowledge.
  11. The Function of the Governmental Body: It is suggested that the government consider providing basic and higher education to tribal communities, enabling them to overcome challenges such as casual employment and illiteracy. The establishment of additional separate schools and colleges specifically for tribal communities, along with employment-oriented education, is also recommended. Special educational programs under the Tribal Sub-Plan should be implemented, with a focus on addressing issues like high dropout rates, low enrolment, poor performance, and illiteracy within the tribal population. Furthermore, it is proposed that there be enhanced coordination between the Tribal Welfare Department and the School Education Department, coupled with continuous monitoring and evaluation of tribal schools. Additionally, the establishment of a dedicated Tribal Board in Jammu and Kashmir is suggested, with the primary responsibility of overseeing the proper implementation of incentive schemes. The provision of Tribal Smart Cards to all tribal members is also proposed to facilitate their access to tribal-specific welfare and educational programs.

In addition to the approaches already discussed, we might also consider harnessing the power of mass media, banking, commerce, technology, and finance to revolutionise the welfare and educational advancement of tribal communities, unlocking a brighter future for all. Consequently, elevating education for tribal populations in Jammu and Kashmir necessitates a visionary strategy that seamlessly integrates accessibility, quality, and sociocultural aspects. By adopting the possible methodologies and actively embracing tribal communities, we can cultivate a more inclusive and empowered educational environment, ultimately transforming lives and empowering overall development and well-being.

Conclusion

Jammu and Kashmir, a region distinguished by its rich heritage-related diversity, is inhabited by numerous tribal communities. These communities frequently reside in geographically and ecologically isolated areas, presenting unique social, economic, and educational needs. Specifically, Scheduled Tribe (ST) students in Jammu and Kashmir encounter complex educational obstacles, encompassing language difficulties, insufficient infrastructure, teacher inadequacies, financial limitations, and cultural alienation. Focusing on the challenges and employing specific strategies will be essential for enhancing the educational opportunities available to the tribal population, thereby fostering their socioeconomic advancement and overall prosperity.

References

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