When asked to envision the term ‘gender-based violence’, the most vivid imagery that arises in the minds of most people is that of a man, commonly the husband, inflicting physical harm upon a woman, the wife. In this case, the most commonly considered forms of physical harm include slapping, kicking, and punching. The above-mentioned scenario, yet unfortunately a grim reality for thousands of married women across the world, is an example of gender-based violence. The terms ‘gender-based violence’ and ‘violence against women’ are frequently used as synonymous to each other. Violence against women is a categorization of gender-based violence. The problem with the two terms being used interchangeably is the dire exclusion of male victims of gender-based violence as it proves to be a matter of outrageous concern. The European Commission defines Gender-based violence as ‘Violence directed against a person because of that person’s gender or violence that affects persons of a particular gender disproportionately.’ Wars, genocides, murders, assaults, rape, torture, and mass shootings are all wretched reminders of humans' potential to act in savagely violent and evil ways. Gender-based violence is one such example of a prolonged list of crimes against humanity. In order to effectively understand the psychology underlying gender-based violence, it is important to understand the feasible factors causing violence and aggression in people.

Coming full circle: The evolutionary perspective

Going back to the very beginning, did the early man display traits of violence and aggression? The answer to this question is ambiguous. While some researchers claim that humans may possess an evolutionary predisposition for violence, other counter-arguments have shut down this claim citing a lack of sufficient evidence. With respect to the argument in favor of a predisposition for violence, there is also the question of the extent to which each human being is susceptible to the inheritability of these violent traits. Why are some people relatively more or less violent than some others? However, there may be some truth to this argument owing to the empirical and statistical evidence proving that members of one gender are particularly more violent than members of other genders. A mere glance at crime statistics without much ado is sufficient to prove that historically, and at present, men are found to be the perpetrators of more violence and violent crimes than women. Consequently, women are found to largely be the victims of these violent crimes. According to Darwin’s theory of Natural Selection, species pass on favorable and adaptive traits to their offspring which is then carried on phylogenetically to the forthcoming generation. These traits are passed on in order to enhance the likelihood of survival of a particular species. In the popular press, this phenomenon is referred to as ‘the survival of the fittest’. Darwin argued that violence as a trait could have been passed down across generations. The evolutionary significance of this trait could be attributed to factors such as guarding of territory, mate selection and reproductive potential. Competition arises when the resources essential for survival are limited. However, this significance is a matter of debate with the changing environmental, socio-cultural and ethical aspects of human civilization. We are at a point in time where resources essential for survival are no longer scarce. Humans have evolved a great deal in terms of education, technology and science. Yet, why is aggression and violence deeply etched as an irrefutable facet of our modern existence?

Psychological theories that explain aggression in humans

With regard to gender-based violence, the terms ‘aggression’ and ‘violence’ are often used interchangeably. Violence is regarded as an extreme subtype of aggression. Therefore, to effectively understand the root causes of violence and consequently, that of gender-based violence, it is important to understand one of the underlying elements that characterize it: aggression.

• Frustration-aggression hypothesis: The frustration-aggression hypothesis suggests that individuals behave in a manner characteristic of aggression when frustration arises as a result of being unable to achieve a particular goal. The hypothesis further explains how aggression is sometimes displaced onto an innocent target when the source of the frustration cannot be dislodged. This display of aggression, in extreme cases, increasingly inches toward the violent subtype. A male partner reprimanded by his boss at work arriving home and thrashing his female partner to take out his frustration is an example of this hypothesis in cases of gender-based violence.
• Social learning theory: This theory explains that a particular behavior, in this case aggression or violence, can be learnt vicariously. An individual observes a particular behavior taking place in and/or his surroundings and learns to model the said behavior. Young boys upon observing that the female members of their family are routinely subjected to several forms of gender-based violence have an increased likelihood of modelling the same behavior as an adult. Thus, it is of utmost importance to ensure that children grow up in sheltered surroundings away from violence.
• Cognitive neoassociation theory: The CNA theory posits that strong feelings of aggression or violent behavior could be elicited as a result of some stimuli referred to as ‘negative affects'. The negative affects or experience can range from unpleasant weather conditions to personal circumstances. This theory secondarily includes the frustration-aggression hypothesis.

Gender-based violence: plausible theories and arguments

According to the interest-group theory, members of one group perpetrate violence against members of another group in order the maintain the social, cultural, religious or gender norms and/or beliefs of the group. For instance, an increasingly reiterated gender-based norm within members of the male population is the need for the assertion of dominance over members of the female population. Although this statement is subject to debate, the domineering norm of the male population is an unmistakable cause for gender-based violence. In a similar feat, feminist and patriarchal theories of violence argue that blatant hatred for members of a particular gender results in the perpetration of violent acts against them. This kind of violence is inflicted in order to establish or sustain intense control and power over the victims. The need to establish power over another gender may have biological or social origins. Increased levels of testosterone in men has been associated with behavioral traits characteristic of dominance and control. Domineering behaviors could also be picked up individuals vicariously, through observation and subsequent modelling of the behavior. An alarmingly increased rate of gender-based violent instances observed in specific communities could be attributed to the fact that such violence is particularly prevalent within certain societal groups. Children, upon being exposed to such gender-based violence, come to believe that it is acceptable behavior. These children are at an increased risk of committing violent acts against members of a particular gender as they grow into adults. In many cases, individuals seek out violent or abusive partners because of having witnessed gender-based violence being inflicted by and on older members of the family or community throughout the years.

The aftermath of gender-based violence:

From the comprehensive theories explained above, it is evident that gender-based violence is a grim reality. Many gender-based crimes appear to remain largely underreported due to the shame, embarrassment and stereotypes surrounding them. This observation could mean that a number of victims remain inextricably chained to a generational pattern of gender-based violence. Having examined the potential causes of gender-based violence, let’s proceed to discuss its consequences. The Council of Europe proposes the following as forms of gender-based violence: physical violence, verbal violence, psychological violence, sexual violence and socio-economic violence. Understanding the different methods by which gender-based violence is accomplished can lead to a better interpretation of their consequences.

Gender-based violence can result in the following dire consequences:

• Physical injuries range from minor wounds to fatal injuries.
• Psychological harm includes shame, guilt, depression, suicidal ideation, anxiety, and loneliness among others.
• Development of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and the conceiving of unwanted pregnancies.
• Financial illiteracy, poverty, and homelessness.
• Homicides, mass shootings, and serial killings.

Through the facts presented in this article, one is capable of grasping the various underlying psychological factors and correlates of gender-based violence. However, it is to be noted that the majority of perpetrators of gender-based violence do not suffer from a mental health condition. Therefore, the assumption that these perpetrators are ‘helpless’ victims of their uncontrollable urges and desires as a result of a mental illness is a deeply flawed concept.

Gender-based violence is a gross human rights violence and it is only acceptable that these crimes are treated with the sensitivity and urgency that they demand. Victims of gender-based crimes ought to be provided with the physical, psychological and socio-economic help that they require. In order to reduce instances of violence and subsequently eradicate them, it is of paramount importance to ensure that all cases of such violence are identified and prosecuted. Most importantly, we, as a society, have a lot to unlearn, relearn and assimilate.

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